THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


THE   SCIENCE 


OK 


S2^  ^ 

EDUCATION 


BY 


HENRY    N.    DAY 


AUTHOR   OF    "  AUT    OF   DISCOURSE,"     "ENGLISH    LITER ATURF,,"    "ESTHETICS,' 
"science   of  THOUGHT,"    '"MENTAL   SCIENCE,"    ETC. 


IVISON,   BLAKEMAN,   &   COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 
NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  i88g, 
By  henry  N.  day. 


E.  B.  Sheldon  &  Co., 

Electrotypers  and  Priiitora, 

Nt  w  Haven,  Conu, 


D^5 


PREFACE, 


The  teacher  certainly  should  be  master  of  his 
art.  He  should  know  what  he  is  called  and 
undertakes  to  do,  and  how  he  is  to  do  it  .wisely 
and  well.  He  should  have  a  full  outline  in  ideal 
of  his  work  ever  present  in  his  mind — an  ideal 
which,  however  rudimental  at  the  first,  is  yet  a 
fuU-membered  germ  that  can  be  fostered  up  into 
a  rich  and  symmetrical  maturity.  To  the  thou- 
sands of  earnest  and  conscientious  educators  of 
the  day  a  concise  and  simple  presentation  of  the 
true  character  of  educational  work  may  be  ser- 
(X  viceable  in  forming  for  themselves  such  an  ideal, 
tr^  The  presentation  will  need  of  course  to  be  sum- 
^  mary  in  its  character — brief  while  yet  comprehen- 
sive, dealing  more  with  principles  and  sugges- 
tions than  with  detailed  applications,  but  fully 
covering  the  field.  It  should  itself  exemplify  in 
its  form,  so  far  as  may  be,  the  work  which  it 
expounds,  at  least  in   being   in   the   fullest   sense 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

exactly  scientific  in  its  method.  A  governing 
aim  should  be  to  exhibit  the  entire  field  of 
educational  work,  accurately  circumscribed  as  a 
whole  and  distributed  into  its  complementary 
parts  in  their  due  relationship  and  order. 

Having  devoted  a  full  threescore  years  of 
active  ^service  to  educational  pursuits  in  divers 
relations,  the  author  presents  these  results  of  his 
observation  and  reflection  in  teaching  to  those 
that  are  following  on  in  this  high  and  arduous 
calling  with  the  hope  that  they  may  be  both 
helpful  to  the  educator  himself  and  also  tributary 
to  the  advancement  of  the  work  in  which  he  is 
engaged. 

Henry  N.  Day. 

New  Haven,  May,  1S89. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

§  I.  Science  of  Education,  defined.  §  2.  Three  requisites 
in  a  scientific  exposition  ; — apprehension,  discrimination, 
arrangement.  §  3.  The  twofold  methods  of  Scientific 
Apprehension  : — Observation  ;  Logical  Inference.  §  4.  The 
threefold  methods  of  scientific  thought : — Induction,  Gen- 
eralization, Deduction.  §  5.  Education  defined.  §  6.  The 
process  of  education.  §  7.  The  interaction  of  three  distinct 
factors  : — the  active  force,  the  subject,  the  means.  §  8.  The 
method  of  the  Science : — (i)  the  three  factors  engaged ; 
(2)  the  work  effected  ;  (3)  the  end  or  result. 

BOOK  L 

THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

Chapter  I.  The  Teaching  Factor.— §  9.  Self- 
Teaching.  §  10.  Nature  Teaching.  §  11.  Parental  Teach- 
ing. §  12.  Its  leading  characteristics  :  (i)  Early  begin- 
ning ;  (2)  Following  nature ;  (3)  Kindly ;  (4)  Continuous  ; 
(5)  Authoritative;  (6)  Purposive.  §  13.  Its  method- 
direct  in  example  and  by  precept,  and  indirect  in  controlling 
outward  condition  or  environment,  companionships,  the 
reading,  and  outer  life.  §  14.  Technical  Teaching. — Per- 
sonal qualifications  of  the  teacher,  (i)  sympathetic  and  com- 
municative ;  (2)  earnest ;  (3)  skillful ;  (4)  authoritative. 
§  15.  Requisites  for  effective  work. 

V 


VI  CONTENTS. 

Chapter  II.  The  Pupil. — §  i6.  The  subject  factor  in 
the  educational  interaction,  presenting  a  complement  of 
capabilities.  §  17.  Generic  capabilities,  (i)  Intrinsic.  §  18. 
Extrinsic  in  diverse  relationships.  §  19.  Specially  modified 
capabilities,  as  in  respect  of  age,  of  sex,  personal  idiosyncra- 
sies, condition. 

Chapter  III.  Means  and  Appliances. — §  20.  Edu- 
cational Means. — Objects  in  object  teaching.  §  21.  Appli- 
ances: (i)  Provisions  in  respect  of  places  and  of  times; 
§  22.  (2)  Class  associations.  §  23.  (3)  Rewards  and 
Punishments.  §  24.  (4)  Support — Household  Instruction 
and  Select  Schools.  §  25.  Private  Endowed  Institutions. 
§  26.  State  Institutions. 

BOOK  II. 

EDUCATIONAL  WORK.— THE  INTERACTION 
OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL   FACTORS. 

Chapter  I.  The  Twofold  Work  of  Education. 
— §  27.  Receptive  and  Reactive — Nurture  and  Training. 
§  28.  Nurture — preparatory.  §  29.  Training,  (i)  In  the 
responsive  act,  (2)  Retention — memory  proper.  (3)  Repro- 
duction—Imagination. §  30.  Exercise.  §  31.  Exemplified 
in  the  development  of  the  Imaginative  or  Reproductive 
power. 

Chapter  II.  The  Conditions  of  Effective 
Work  in  Education. -§  32.  (i)  Educational  work  must 
be  sympathetic.  §  33.  (2)  Earnest.  §  34.  (3)  Aiming.  § 
35.  (4)  Developing.  §  36.  (5)  Provident.  §  37.  (6)  Watch- 
ful and  Precautionary.  §  38.  (7)  With  recreation  that  is  fit- 
ting, educatory,  contrastive,  attractive,  from  work  to  play. 

Chapter  III.  The  Special  Modifications  of  Edu- 
cation.— Physical  Ediicaiion.  §  39.  Union  of  Body  with 
Spirit.  §  40.  Physical  Education  seeks  best  ministration  to 
the  whole  man  in  subordination  to  the  mental  life,     §  41. 


CONTENl'S.  Vll 

Recognizes  law  of  habit.  §  42.  Is  guided  by  nature  and 
condition.  §  43.  Mental  Education.— \.  /Esthetic— Its 
province.  §  44.  The  Function  of  Form.  §  45.  Its  two 
sides,  passive  or  Sensibility,  and  active  or  Imagination.  The 
assimilating  stage.  §  46.  The  Retentive  stage.  §  47.  The 
Reproductive  stage.  §  48.  The  Recollecting  stage.  §  49. 
The  proper  Imaginative  or  Creative  stage.  §  50.  Occasions 
for  training  the  Eesthetic  function.  §  51.  II.  Intellectual 
Education.— Its  place.  §  52.  Analysis  and  genesis  of  an 
intellectual  act.  §  53.  The  three  great  movements  of 
thought.  §  54.  The  Stages  of  intellectual  training.  — i  the 
inchoative  or  perceptive  ;  2  the  completed  or  attributive  and 
proper  thinking  activity.  §  55.  Culture  of  the  Perceptive 
faculty.     §  56.  Of  the  proper  thinking  faculty. 

Educational  Aphorisms  in  Special  Rudimen- 
tary Studies,  i.  Spelling;  t.  Reading;  3.  Penman- 
ship; 4.  Arithmetic.  5.  Grammar  as" '' art  of  true  and 
well  speaking." 

'§  57.  III.  Moral  Education,  §  58.  Essential  character- 
istic of  the  will — directive.  §  59.  Fundamental  principle  of 
morals.  §  60.  Threefold  objects  of  moral  activity— Self, 
Fellow-beings,  God.     §  61.  Moral  Training  effected,  (i)  by 

exemplification ;  (2)    formal  precepts ;  (3)  Enforcement  of 
duty. 

BOOK  III. 
EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS. 

Chapter  I.    §  62.  Educational  Limits. 

Chapter  II.  §  63.  Growth  Periods.— Twofold  law 
of  educational  work  from  consideration  of  growth  in  its 
subject,  (i)  It  should  be  previsional :  (2)  should  assure 
every  step.     §  64.  Regulative  principles  of  a  curricuhan. 

Chapter  III.  Education  Periods. — §  65.  Four 
periods  may  be  noted:  (i)  The  Kindergarten  period; 
§  66.  (2)  The  Primary ;  §  67.  (3)  The  Liberal ;  §  68.  (4) 
The  Avocation  or  Professional  Period. 


i 


INTRODUCTION. 


§  I.  A  SCIENCE  of  Education  is  an  orderly 
exposition  of  the  essential  nature  of  education 
in  its  several  departments  and  processes. 

A  science  differs  from  an  art  in  respect  to  its 
end  or  aim  : — science  has  for  its  end  simple  knowl- 
edge ;  art  seeks  practical  skill.  The  facts  and 
the  principles  are  the  same  ;  only  the  method 
and  the  form  vary. 

A  science  of  education  thus  looks  more  closely 
at  the  result — knowledge  or  ability  to  know — 
as  it  is  to  be  effected  in  the  learner  :  an  art  of 
education  looks  more  at  the  result — skill  in 
teaching — as  it  is  to  be  effected  in  the  teacher. 

Practically  science  and  art  for  the  most  part 
freely  intermingle — the  principles  of  science  read- 
ily, for  purposes  of  convenience,  taking  on  the  form 
of  rules  of  art.  Deficiencies  in  knowledge  and  de- 
ficiencies also  in  language  or  means  of  communi- 
cation impose  this  necessity  of  occasional  devia- 
tions from  the  predominant  method  and  form 
specially  proper  to  the  science  or  to  the  art. 

§  2.  Any  science  worthy  of  the  name 
involves  three  requisites: — 

I 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

First,  a  clear  and  distinct  apprehension  of  the 
object  or  subject  matter  to  be  expounded  in  re- 
spect both  to  its  intrinsic  character  and  also  to 
its  relation  to  other  kindred  subjects : — 

Secondly,  a  clear  discrimination  of  all  the  con- 
stituent attributes  of  this  object : — and, 

Thirdly,  an  orderly  arrangement  of  these 
attributes  in  the  exposition. 

We  get  no  proper  idea  of  the  clock  until  not 
only  all  the  constituent  materials  are  brought 
together,  each  part  formed  and  finished  in  itself; 
not  until  also  each  is  fitted  into  its  place  in  rela- 
tion to  the  whole  product  and  to  its  related 
parts.  Only  when  the  parts  are  all  thus  adjusted 
to  one  another  does  the  perfect  clock  appear. 
So  no  science  appears  worthy  of  the  name  until 
all  the  parts  are  discriminated  and  adjusted  in 
due  relation,  one  to  another. 

§  3.  The  methods  of  scientific  apprehension 
are  twofold  : — 

First,  Observation,  personal  or  through 
others  : — 

Secondly,  Logical  Inference,  or  a  movement  of 
thought  on  such  observation. 

§  4.     The  logical  methods  are  threefold  : — 

First,  by  Induction,  in  which  the  observation 
of  one  part  leads  to  another  like  part  so  that  one 
feature  or  element,  one  fact  or  experience,  or  in 
general  terms,  one  instance,  shall  answer  for 
many. 

Secondly,  by  Generalization,  in  which  process 


I 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

a  plurality  of  things,  possessing  some  one  char- 
acteristic in  common,  are  gathered  into  a  class 
on  the  basis  of  that  common  characteristic  ; 
and, 

Thirdly,  by  Deduction,  in  which  movement  of 
thought  anything  found  to  be  true  of  a  class  is 
accepted  to  be  true  of  any  species  or  individual 
of  that  class. 

§  5.  By  Education  is  signified  the  development 
of  a  Jiunian  being  into  the  character  determined  for 
him  by  his  nature  and  capabilities  and  by  the  con- 
dition in  zvhich  he  is  placed.  The  end  in  all  right 
education  is  the  perfecting  of  this  character. 
This  end  is  attained  in  the  two  comprehensive 
ways  of  right  NURTURE  and  right  TRAINING.  As 
essentially  active,  man  must  be  met  by  some  fit 
objects  on  which  his  activity  is  to  be  expended 
and  in  these  supplied  objects  is  found  the  food 
or  nutriment  on  which  he  is  to  grow.  He  needs 
also  to  be  guided  towards  the  right  objects  and 
in  the  way  and  the  degree  of  exerting  his  activity 
on  them. 

Educational  science,  accordingly,  must  appre- 
hend the  character  which  man  was  designed  by 
his  creator  to  bear,  both  generically  as  common 
to  the  race,  and  specifically  as  belonging  to  the 
membership  of  a  nation,  a  family,  a  community 
of  whatever  kind  to  which  he  belongs,  and  more- 
over individually  as  pertaining  to  the  idiosyncra- 
sies of  the  person.  It  prescribes  that  an  ideal  of 
this  character  be  ever  present  to  shape  the  nurture 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

and  the  training.  It  will  embrace  in  this  consid- 
eration of  the  end  to  be  reached  in  education 
the  particular  calling  or  pursuit  in  life  for  which 
individuals  are  respectively  to  be  educated. 

§6.  The  process  of  education,  accordingly, 
ever  respects  a  growth — an  advance  in  right 
direction  and  in  fullest  degree  from  an  infantile 
and  so  characterless  potency  towards  the  ideal 
of  a  perfect  maturity.  It  seeks  a  continuous 
growth,  inasmuch  as  its  subject  is  a  life  that  as 
a  whole  suffers  no  interruption  in  its  onward 
course,  although  specific  functions  are  engaged 
more  prominently  at  one  time  and  less  at 
another  in  order  that  all  may  receive  their  due 
development.  This  growth,  moreover,  proceeds 
by  stages,  in  each  of  which  it  is  carried  on  with 
more  or  less  of  exclusiveness  and  of  interruption. 
To  each  stage  a  wisely  directed  education  adapts 
its  training ;  while  at  the  same  time  it  secures 
that  the  growth  at  each  particular  stage  shall  be 
helpful  to  the  growth  at  each  subsequent  stage. 
The  growth  of  man  towards  the  ideal  of  a 
perfect  character  is  well  typified  in  that  of  the 
vine  that  by  uprooting  or  injudicious  pruning 
may  be  bereft  of  all  capability  of  reaching  a  fruit- 
ful maturity  whether  in  itself  as  a  whole  or  in 
any  particular  branch.  Its  normal  condition,  the 
law  of  its  life  is  that  of  a  growth  that  is  contin- 
uous but  by  stages.  Its  wintry  rest  even  is  real 
progress.  Nevertheless  the  most  promising  bud 
or  shoot  may  be  stunted  or  utterly  fail  through 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

an   untimely  check,   or    by  diversion   of   nurture 
or  by  abrupt  change  of  treatment. 

§  7.  The  process  of  education  necessarily 
involves  the  interaction  of  three  distinct  ele- 
ments or  factors.  These  elements  or  factors 
may  be  more  conveniently  and,  indeed,  more  cor- 
rectly regarded  as  active  elements  or  forces. 
Even  although  at  times  appearing  as  receptive 
and  so  far  passive ;  since  they  do  not  lose  their 
essentially  active  nature  even  when  receptive,  as 
factors,  as  interacting,  or  producing  effects,  in  a 
word,  as  real,  they  must  be  held  to  be  essentially 
active,  and  therefore  forces.  Their  rest  or  pas- 
siveness  is  that  of  an  active  nature.  These  three 
factors  are — 

First,  the  Teacher ; — the  proper  active  force  in 
education ; 

Second,  the  Learner ; — the  proper  subject  of 
education  ; 

Third,  the  Means  and  Instruments  and  Condi- 
tions generally  of  effective  education. 

§  8.  Method. — From  this  summary  view  of 
the  essential  character  of  education  in  respect  to 
its  end,  means,  and  process  as  involving  three  dis- 
tinct factors  or  interacting  forces,  the  proper 
method  of  unfolding  the  science  of  education 
may  be  readily  discerned.  The  general  theme 
being  definitely  outlined  so  that  it  can  be  intelli- 
gently apprehended  and  moreover  being  exhib- 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

ited  as  constituted  of  complementary  parts  which 
equally  admit  of  definite  apprehension,  it  shows 
itself  to  be  a  fit  subject  of  exact  scientific  treat- 
ment. The  science  will  be  methodically  and 
exhaustively  expounded  in  a  full  and  right  con- 
sideration, First,  of  the  three  interacting  ele- 
ments engaged  in  education  ; — 

Secondly,  of  the  work  effected  by  these  factors, 
as  shown  in  its  method  and  in  its  several  depart- 
ments ;  and. 

Thirdly,  of  the  end  in  education  in  its  respect- 
ive modifications  by  reason  of  person  and  of 
condition. 


BOOK    I. 
THE    FACTORS    IN    EDUCATION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   TEACHING   FACTOR. 

§  9.  Self-Teaching. — A  great  part  of  the 
educational  work  in  human  life  is  done  by  the 
soul  itself.  The  process  begins  by  the  very  ordi- 
nances of  its  nature  at  the  earliest  period.  It 
enlarges  with  growth  till  it  becomes  well-nigh 
exclusive :  the  mature  man,  becoming  his  own 
teacher,  both  selecting  the  food  that  is  to  nour- 
ish up  his  character  and  also  disciplining  his  fac- 
ulties under  his  own  guidance  and  control.  The 
first  stage  is  one  of  almost  absolute  dependence. 
The  infant  life  is  receptive,  passively  subject  to 
whatever  influence  may  come  to  it  from  without ; 
it  is  purely  instinctive  and  spontaneous.  Natural 
wants  are  the  impelling,  the  guiding,  and  the  con- 
trolling forces.  The  life  seems  almost  all  sense, 
and  at  first  is  mainly  physical  ;  only  later  does  it 
manifest  itself  as  emotional  or  spiritual.     At  a  sec- 

7 


8  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

ond  stage  the  reflex  or  responsive  characteristic  in 
body  and  spirit  manifests  itself  with  the  appear- 
ance of  the  control  of  habit.  Still  later  and  only 
by  very  slow  development  is  it  that  the  infant 
becomes  much  of  a  learner  from  its  own  con- 
scious teaching.  More  and  more,  however,  ex- 
perience inculcates  its  lessons,  and  at  last  expert 
skill  and  self-confidence  draw  into  its  own  hands 
the  reins  and  the  spur  of  training.  Infancy, 
childhood,  youth,  mature  manhood,  thus  desig- 
nate stages  of  self-educational  growth,  possessing 
each  its  own  characteristics  but  passing  each 
into  its  successor  with  transitional  lines  not 
easily  traceable. 

Only  a  slight  inspection  of  human  life  and  his- 
tory thus  suffices  to  show  that  man  is  called  and 
destined  to  be  his  own  teacher.  This  is  his  right, 
his  duty  ;  and  his  too  is  the  responsibility  of  ex- 
ercising the  high  function  aright  and  to  its  full 
extent.  He  is  largely  charged  with  forming  his 
own  character,  both  comprehensively  as  a  man  in 
the  entireness  of  his  being  and  also  particularly 
in  the  specific  pursuits  and  acts  of  his  life.  All 
right  education  must  be  conducted  under  the 
recognition  of  this  principle  of  self-training  and 
must  ever  seek  to  inculcate  it  on  every  learning- 
soul. 

But  it  is  equally  obvious  that  the  capability  of 
exercising  this  high  prerogative  is  itself  a  matter 
of  growth  and  training.  Up  to  a  certain  stage, 
which  however  it  is  difficult,  if  not  rather  impos- 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR,  9 

sible,  to  define  in  the  life  of  any  one,  he  is  de- 
pendent for  guidance,  encouragement,  discipline, 
on  forces  external  to  himself ;  and  he  becomes 
virtually  independent  only  by  degrees  and  in  the 
divers  departments  of  his  nature  only  by  succes- 
sively maturing  experiences.  Perplexity  must 
often  attend  the  question  whether  he  is  capable 
at  any  stage  of  assuming  this  self-guidance  for 
general  culture  or  for  any  special  training.  If 
weakness  and  inefificiency  wait  on  the  error  on 
one  side  of  too  prolonged  dependence,  a  possibly 
more  harmful  presumption  and  audacity  may 
characterize  the  error  on  the  other  side  of  assum- 
ing prematurely  self-control  and  independence. 

Two  principles  of  fundamental  significance  are 
applicable  here.  First,  to  every  rational  nature 
there  necessarily  appertains  an  ideal  of  the  best 
and  highest  attainable  in  character  and  condi- 
tion. The  simple  notion  of  responsibility  as 
attaching  to  every  such  nature  involves  this 
truth.  But  this  ideal  is  itself  a  matter  of  growth 
— of  guidance  and  of  culture.  To  unfold  and 
perfect  it  is  indeed  a  governing  object  in  all  true 
science  of  education.  Nature  of  itself  germi- 
nates this  ideal  and  provides  guards  and  helps 
for  its  development.  Experience  helps  to 
school  and  foster  it.  Example  and  counsel 
with  self-study  and  reflection  add  their  perfect- 
ing work.  The  essential  thing  in  this  ideal  of 
self-training  is  character— the  best  and  highest 
attainable— not  happiness  or  pleasure  which  ever 


lO  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCA  T/OAT. 

waits  on  character  and  condition,  not  honor  or 
applause  that  is  equally  but  a  consequent  of 
character.  The  principle  of  the  best  and  high- 
est applies  both  to  the  formation  of  the  whole 
nature — of  character  in  its  most  comprehensive 
import — and  also  to  the  acquisition  of  excellence 
of  proper  success  in  any  specific  pursuit  or  con- 
dition. 

Secondly,  the  main  reliance  in  self-teaching  is 
to  be  placed  on  one's  self.  The  best  and  the 
highest  is  to  be  achieved  by  personal  endeavor. 
It  is  not  to  be  expected  to  come  as  a  windfall 
by  some  chance  or  turn  of  fortune,  nor  as  a  gift 
to  be  bestowed  by  some  friendly  agency.  So 
even  the  aspirant  for  the  best  and  highest  will, 
while  freely  accepting  or  even  in  emergencies 
soliciting  help  and  counsel,  avail  himself  of  only 
so  much  as  may  be  needful  and  use  that  as  minis- 
tering, not  mastering. 

Said  a  sagacious  teacher  to  a  lad  asking  help  in 
solving  an  arithmetical  problem  that  might  easily 
be  deemed  to  be  beyond  his  years :  "  Listen  : 
I  tell  you  a  story.  Two  men  contracted  to  dig  a 
well  for  which  they  were  to  receive  a  certain 
amount  when  they  should  find  water.  The  labor 
was  greater  than  they  had  calculated  for,  and 
they  began  to  despond,  and  one  proposed  to  give 
up.  The  other  urged  holding  on,  till  at  last  the 
pick  which  one  struck  into  the  rock  went  through 
down  into  a  pool  of  water  which  then  rose  upon 
them  so   fast   that    they    had    need    to    do    their 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR.  1 1 

utmost  to  escape.  So,"  she  continued,  "  the  light 
comes  in  when  you  try  long  and  patiently." 
The  lesson  was  accepted  and  was  never  forgotten. 
The  whole  life  was  shaped  and  blessed  by  that 
sage  counsel  confidingly  obeyed. 

§  lo.  Nature-Teaching. — Self-teaching  com- 
bines all  the  three  factors  concerned  in  teaching 
— teacher,  learner,  and  medium  or  instrument. 
The  self-teacher  has  himself  for  teacher,  learner, 
and  matter  of  study.  All  other  teaching  forces 
are  divisible  into  two  kinds,  impersonal  and  per- 
sonal, of  which  the  former  combines  in  the  work 
of  teaching  two  of  the  factors  ;  the  latter,  for  the 
most  part  at  least  engages  but  one.  All  the 
impersonal  teaching  forces  may  be  comprehen- 
sively included  under  the  one  denomination  of 
nature-teaching. 

A  great  part  and  a  most  indispensable  part  of 
the  work  wrought  by  education  in  the  human 
soul  is  wrought  by  nature.  Nature  indeed  leads 
in  all  this  work  of  education ;  guides  in  all ;  co- 
operates in  all  ;  crowns  all.  She  dictates  the 
end  and  so  the  ideal  of  the  work  to  be  effected, 
for  this  end  and  ideal  are  but  the  development 
and  perfection  of  capabilities  which  she  has 
created  for  the  very  purpose  that  they  should  be 
so  developed  and  perfected.  She  incites  in  the 
instinct  which  she  has  implanted  and  enforces  in 
the  stern  retributive  laws  with  which  she  rules  all 
things  subject  to  her  sway.  She  guides  also  as 
well  as  assists  in  all  the  prosecution  of  the  train- 


1 2  THE  FA  C  TORS  IN  ED  UCA  TION. 

ing-work  which  she  prescribes.  The  work  of 
education  cannot  be  safely,  wisely,  or  success- 
fully prosecuted  except  as  this  relation  of  nature 
is  recognized  from  beginning  to  end.  The  grow- 
ing and  learning  spirit  needs  to  be  carefully 
trained  from  the  earliest  hour  to  observe  and  to 
obey  what  nature  teaches  and  inculcates.  Her 
teachings  in  themselves,  rightly  understood  and 
rightly  applied,  never  mislead.  /  Her  promptings, 
her  instincts,  her  appetences,  her  ambitions,  may 
be  disproportionately  followed,  some  unduly  cul- 
tivated or  heeded,  others  depressed  or  neglected ; 
she  is  nevertheless  a  wise,  safe,  altogether  trust- 
worthy teacher, — a  teacher,  too,  that  never  tires 
and  never  forsakes ;  one,  moreover,  that  will 
surely  crown  the  attentive  and  docile  with  her 
laurels  and  equally  punish  with  failure  and 
shame  the  truant  and  the  negligent. 

Nature  teaches  both  as  a  model  and  also  by 
direct  inculcation  of  truth  and  wisdom  ;  reveal- 
ing everywhere  principles  and  rules  which  are 
more  or  less  exemplified  and  illustrated  in  her 
arrangements  and  her  processes.  /  The  more 
closely  she  is  studied,  the  more  does  she  com- 
mend herself  for  imitation  and  the  more  wisely 
is  she  found  to  counsel.  /"  Study  nature  as  model 
and  counsellor"  is  a  prime  maxim  for  the  forma- 
tion of  character. 

Nature  teaches  sympathetically  as  with  mater- 
nal solicitude  for  her  own  offspring  ;  wisely,  as 
knowing  her  offspring's  needs ;    safely,  as  never 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR.  1 3 

erring  ;  quickly  and  unobtrusively,  her  best 
teachings  to  a  large  extent  to  the  unconscious 
ear ;  and  authoritatively,  promising  everything 
to  the  considerate  learner  and  threatening  all 
evil  to  the  reckless  and  the  defiant. 
/Nature's  lessons  are  many  and  diverse./  She 
teaches  what  man  is  in  himself,  and  in  his  rela- 
tions to  the  universe  of  being  and  of  truth  ;  that 
he  is  himself  an  integral  and  responsible  part  of 
this  universe,  correlated  with  it  in  innumerable 
ways,  bound  to  it  in  indissoluble  bonds  of  sym- 
pathy and  reciprocity  of  influence,  subject  to  its 
laws  and  linked  in  with  its  destinies.  She 
teaches  him  not  only  what  he  is  in  his  original 
constitution,  but  also  what  he  may  become  and 
is  created  and  commanded  to  be,  and  assures 
him  that  the  happiness  for  which  he  longs  but 
over  which  he  has  no  direct  control,  yet  waits 
on  his  compliance  with  the  promptings  and 
biddings  of  his  true  nature.  She  teaches  him 
the  ways  and  conditions  of  all  healthy  growth 
whether  of  body  or  of  mind  ,  that  it  must  be 
continuous  both  as  a  whole  and  in  all  specific 
advances  and  attainments  that  under  the  iron 
rule  of  habit  repetition  of  act  ever  strengthens 
tendency  to  good  or  to  evil,  the  seed  sown  ever 
yielding  its  own  harvest — a  harvest  of  peace  and 
content  in  age  ever  following  the  virtuous 
endeavors  of  growing  life  in  thought,  desire,  and 
purpose,  and  a  harvest  of  bitter  regrets  in  like 
certainty  following  indulgence  of  evil  feeling  and 


14  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

evil  conduct  in  youth ; — with  emphatic  voice 
declaring  "  the  child  is  father  of  the  man."  She 
teaches  him  the  fundamental  lessons  of  order 
and  regularity  to  be  observed  in  all  the  ongoings 
of  life.  She  enforces  the  moral  lessons  of  tem- 
perance and  self-control  and  persevering  indus- 
try ;  of  rectitude  and  sympathetic  kindness  ;  of 
reverence  and  piety.  Truly  enviable  is  the  child- 
hood and  youth  upon  which  rest  in  the  fullest 
degree  the  sweet,  broad  and  genial  influences  of 
nature  where  freest  from  the  corruptions  and 
narrownesses  of  artificial  life. 

Education  is  thus  an  ordinance  of  nature. 
The  ignorance  and  helplessness  of  infancy,  she 
enjoins  in  ten  thousand  ways,  must  be  educated 
into  the  vigor  and  efficiency  of  full  manhood. 
What  this  education  is  she  clearly  unfolds  in 
experience  and  to  outward  observation,  affording 
herself  as  a  model  in  her  manifestations  of  her- 
self and  in  the  revelations  of  truth  and  wisdom 
in  her  habitual  ongoings.  She  is  the  prompter, 
the  guide,  the  helper,  the  rewarder  in  all  sound 
education.  To  every  youthful  aspirant  for  virtue 
and  excellence,  she  says,  "  Be  a  diligent  student 
of  my  ways  and  of  my  instructions  ;  ever  on  time  ; 
ever  in  place,  ever  aiming;  ever  growing; 
patiently  waiting  ;  confidently  hoping  ;  the  bud 
will  at  length  quietly  open  into  flower,  and 
flower  in  its  time  bring  in  the  perfected  fruit." 

%\\.  Parental  Teaching. — The  home  is 
preeminently    the     nursery    of     character.      In- 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR.  15 

fancy  is  plastic  and  yields  freely  to  the  ear- 
liest impressions.  Between  the  manifold  paths 
open  to  its  starting  career  it  has  no  choice 
of  its  own  and  follows  any  leading.  Its  pas- 
sive nature  forms  itself  into  the  mold  that  is 
first  presented  as  its  activities  go  out  towards 
the  particular  object  that  first  invites  them. 
Whether  endowment  or  culture  is  the  mightier 
factor  of  character  is  for  all  practical  inter- 
est an  idle  question.  There  can  be  no  cul- 
ture where  there  is  no  endowment  to  be 
cultivated ;  and  genius  without  culture  is  a 
germ  that  never  yields  blossom  or  fruit.  Every 
child  has  a  nature  of  its  own ;  it  is  human,  con- 
stituted of  body  and  soul,  each  having  its  own 
peculiar  constitution  and  capability.  Culture 
can  only  develop  or  stunt  this  characteristic 
capability  ;  cannot  make  it  other  than  human, 
although  it  may  be  of  the  lowest  grade — cannot 
dispossess  it  of  brain,  and  nerve,  and  muscle,  and 
bone,  nor  yet  of  feeling,  intellect,  and  will,  how- 
ever dwarfed  ;  while  on  the  other  hand  as  every 
such  human  capability  is  the  subject  of  growth, 
each  may  by  judicious  and  faithful  culture  be 
nourished  up  to  health  and  vigor,  to  any  inde- 
terminable degree  within  the  limits  of  proper 
human  nature.  The  defective  and  the  mor- 
bid may  indeed  in  the  abundant  provisions  of 
nature  for  her  creature,  man,  be  in  a  measure 
healed  or  reinforced,  and  supplemented.  The 
human   spirit,  destined  to  immortality  with    an 


1 6  THE  FA  CTORS  IN  ED  UCA  TION. 

undying  capacity  of  growth,  however  feeble  or 
even  deficient  at  its  birth,  has  yet  before  it  the 
assurance  that  a  character  of  enviable  strength 
and  beauty  is  possible  to  it  as  the  distinctive 
gift  and  endowment  of  its  creator.  If  the  richest 
endowment  solicits  the  richest  culture,  the 
meanest  capacity  has  a  hopeful  career  before  it 
and  only  demands  a  sympathy,  patience,  judg- 
ment, and  faithfulness  adjusted  to  its  special 
needs. 

Home  culture  is,  in  the  general,  parental.  The 
parents,  of  divine  right  and  prescription,  rule  the 
household.  It  is  a  double  sovereignty,  of  equal 
rank  and  honor,  of  diverse  power  with  their 
respective  opportunity  and  fitness,  but  by  the 
appointment  of  nature  herself  ever  to  be  har- 
monious and  reciprocally  helpful.  Discord  in 
parental  rule  is  ever  perilous  to  filial  peace  and 
destiny. 

In  the  earliest  stage,  maternal  rule  and  influ- 
ence undoubtedly  must  predominate,  and  so  far 
it  must  be  allowed  to  exert  the  most  determining 
influence  on  character,  as  the  first  turn  of  the 
springing  brook  has  most  to  do  with  the  final 
course  of  the  river.     Truly  has  an  old  poet  said  : 

The  mother,  in  her  office,  holds  the  key 

Of  the  soul ;  and  she  it  is  who  stamps  the  coin 

Of  character,  and  makes  the  l)eing,  who  would  be  a  savage 

But  for  her  gentle  cares,  a  Christian  man. 

Benjamin  West  is  reported  to  have  said  :  "  My 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR.  ly 

mother's  kiss  made  me  a  painter."  He  referred 
to  the  fact  that  when  at  the  age  of  seven,  having 
been  left  in  charge  of  the  cradle  of  his  sister,  he 
sketched  the  sleeping  form,  his  mother  on  her 
return  observing  the  sketch  was  so  pleased  with 
the  work  that  "  she  took  him  in  lier  arms  and 
kissed  him  fondly."  Such  little  influence,  par- 
ticularly such  kindly  commendation,  determines 
character  in  this  plastic  period  of  life. 

Parental  training  embraces  both  nurture  and 
discipline.  It  supplies  all  needful  food  and  nour- 
ishment to  the  growing  capabilities  of  right  and 
rich  character  so  as  to  supply  the  defects  and 
correct  the  deformities  of  nature,  so  far  as  may 
be,  whether  in  body  or  mind,  and  so  as  also  to 
nourish  up  to  an  ever  advancing  condition  of 
health  and  vigor.  It  is  its  function  also  to 
awaken  and  engage  aright  all  native  activities  in 
their  season,  directing  them  upon  their  proper 
objects,  repressing  all  excesses  as  well  as  turning 
back  from  all  wanderings,  keeping  them  ever  in 
the  right  way  and  in  the  right  degree  of  exertion. 

§  12.  The  leading  particulars  of  parental  duty 
in  training  are  : — 

First,  that  it  begin  early.  It  can  hardly  begin 
too  early  ;  for  earliest  impressions  are  deepest 
and  the  most  dominant  of  tendency  and  of 
habit.  If  the  opening  life  is  greeted  with  the 
glad  welcome  which  its  nature  solicits,  in  tem- 
perature, in  nourishment,  in  bodily  contact,  in 
taste,  and  sound,  an     sight,  from  all  that  meet  it 

2 


1 8  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

of  person  or  thing,  it  gets  a  setting  out  in  its 
career  that  is  most  promising,  for  nature  and 
nature's  rule  are  beneficent  and  wise.  On  the 
other  hand  it  maybe  assumed  with  sad  assurance 
that  fretting  touch,  fretting  food,  fretting  dress, 
fretting  noise  and  fretting  glare,  and  it  may  be 
added,  fretting  mother  and  fretting  nurse,  will 
breed  a  fretful  temper.  The  sunny  character  is 
the  child  of  morally  sunny  skies,  as  no  plant  of 
worth  starts  from  out  of  cold  and  dark  and  un- 
genial  soils.  Education  begins  when  first  the 
young  life  is  deposited  in  parental  care  and  it  is 
then  that  it  does  its  best  and  its  most  efficient 
work  on  character. 

Secondly,  parental  training  must  be  natural. 
It  must  be  suited  in  kind  and  degree  to  native 
capab-ilities,  and  to  native  needs.  It  must  not 
supplant  nature.  There  is  often  excess  of  train- 
ing care,  which  is  hurtful,  misleading,  stifling  here 
and  stuffing  there,  and  so  deforming  and  marring. 
Human  life  both  in  soul  and  body  has  a  power 
of  its  own,  a  trend  and  set  of  its  own,  and 
a  guiding  instinct  of  its  own.  This  is  a  fact 
that  it  is  dangerous  to  overlook.  How  and  how 
far  natural  propensities  should  be  interfered 
with  in  training  is  a  question  that  demands  con- 
sideration and  sound  judgment.  Each  case  must 
be  determined  on  its  own  claims  and  merits. 
Training  skill  may  mend  nature,  or  even  change 
it  ;  but  it  must  itself  be  natural,  of  nature's  de- 
vising and  nature's  applying. 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR.  1 9 

Thirdly,  parental  training  must  be  kindly. 
This  rule  is  indeed  little  more  than  an  empha- 
sized particular  embraced  in  the  preceding.  The 
training  must  be  sympathetic ;  suited  to  the 
needs  and  the  occasions  ;  manifestly  beneficial 
and  loving ;  as  well  as  judicious  and  wise,  for 
nature  herself  is  wisdom  and  order  and  goodness 
in  her  inmost  character.  A  gentle  touch,  a 
shaded  countenance,  a  firmer  accent,  a  slight 
withdrawal  of  wonted  favor  that  only  sufBces  to 
manifest  disapproval  or  restraint,  is  wiser  and 
better  and  more  ef^cient  than  boisterous  threat 
or  violent  abuse,  than  rough  word  or  angry 
blow.  Infantile  docility  far  exceeds  the  general 
estimate  of  parents.  It  was  creditably  reported 
to  the  American  Philological  Society  at  one  of 
its  annual  meetings  that  the  children  in  a  family, 
the  parents  of  whom  were  both  deaf  and  dumb, 
were  never  known  to  cry.  So  quick  to  observe, 
to  comprehend,  to  apply,  is  natural  instinct. 
Particularly  may  it  here  be  said  that  to  threaten 
and  not  to  execute  the  threat  is  a  double  curse  ; 
it  sanctions  untruth  and  spoils  temper. 

Fourthly,  parental  training  should  be  continu- 
ous, and  ever  congruous  or  consistent  with  itself. 
Even  a  certain  uniformity  in  diet  is  requisite  for 
health  and  growth  of  body,  for  all  bodily  func- 
tions by  nature's  organic  law  bend  themselves  to 
external  conditions,  and,  moreover,  are  subject  to 
the  law  of  habit,  to  a  degree  indeed,  it  is  be- 
lieved, that  is  but  very  inadequately  recognized. 


20  THE  FA  C TORS  IN  ED  UCA  TION. 

Training  in  the  broader  sense,  comprehending 
both  nurture  and  discipline  and  for  the  whole 
race,  fails  if  it  does  not  count  upon  time,  dura- 
tion, continuousness,  as  an  indispensable  condi- 
tion for  the  successful  development  of  character 
both  in  the  general  and  in  all  particular  elements 
and  features.  Childhood  is  indeed  characteristic- 
ally volatile.  So  nature  has  wisely  ordered  in 
order  that  the  great  diversity  of  capabilities  may 
be  symmetrically  developed,  so  that  no  one  shall 
become  overgrown  and  no  one  dwarfed.  Activ- 
ity must  alternate  with  rest;  wakefulness  with 
sleep;  receptivity  with  out-putting  power.  Right 
training  must  recognize  both  of  these  opposite 
principles  of  continuousness  and  of  change  in 
food  and  exercise.  Frequency  of  change  pre- 
dominates in  earlier  life  ;  long  continuousness  is 
both  more  possible  and  also  proportionately 
more  effective  in  maturing  life.  Five  minutes  of 
uninterrupted  strain  of  attention  might  be  bad 
for  the  infant,  while  five  hours  might  not  overtax 
the  adult.  The  commanding  rule  here  is  :  time 
for  every  training  process  and  singleness  of  occu- 
pation in  that  time,— the  interval  or  duration 
to  be  allotted  according  to  age,  study,  circum- 
stances generally.  A  great  statesman,  being 
asked  how  he  could  accomplish  so  much,  replied  : 
"By  doing  one  thing  at  a  time."  This  is  a 
fundamental  principle  of  successful  life,  applicable 
to  every  stage  from  infancy  to  maturity.  While 
the   principle  of  change   has   its  claims,  unwise, 


THE  TEACHING  EACTOK.  21 

uncalled  for  change  in  nurture  or  in  discipline, 
in  teacher  or  in  study,  is  the  bane  of  all  true  edu- 
cation. 

Fifthly,  parental  training  should  be  authorita- 
tive. The  will  of  the  parent  should  be  and 
should  ever,  in  all  the  intercourse  between  parent 
and  child,  even  in  the  freest  and  most  confidino- 
intercourse,  in  the  hour  of  sport  and  play  as  in 
the  time  of  serious  study  or  work,  be  held  ready 
to  manifest  itself  to  be,  paramount.  A  timely 
beginning  followed  up  by  consistent  and  rational 
rule,  will  make  the  duty  easy.  Not  to  break  a 
child's  will,  but  to  direct  and  bend  it,  isthe  func-^ 
tion  of  wise  parental  rule. 

Once  more,  parental  training  should  be  aim- 
ing, purposive.  It  should  have  an  aim  both  in 
respect  to  general  character  and  also  as  to  spe- 
cific features ;  it  should  recognize  this  aim  and 
steadily  pursue  it.  So  far  as  it  lacks  this,  it 
lacks  rationality  itself.  Utter  negligence  and 
indifference  are  hardly  worse  than  an  aimless, 
capricious,  whimsical,  fitful  training,  if  training 
it  can  be  called. 

§  13.  The  method  or  way  of  parental  training 
is  either  direct  or  indirect.  It  is  direct  in  exam- 
ple, in  precept  and  instruction,  and  all  other 
kinds  of  personal  influence.  It  is  indirect  in  the 
selection  of  associates,  of  books,  of  teachers,  of 
surroundings  generally. 

The  forming  power  of  parental  example  ranks 
high   among   educational  forces.     The  child  has 


22  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

an  imitative  nature,  and  molds  itself  instinct- 
ively into  the  form  which  the  parental  relation 
furnishes  to  it  at  its  most  impressible  age,  and 
presses  upon  it  with  greatest  constancy  and 
force.  Temper,  manners,  opinions,  life  in  all  its 
outspringings,  it  fashions  after  the  copy  which, 
being  ever  before  it,  is  watched  and  studied  with 
incessant  attention  and  keenest  discernment  ; 
and  its  plastic  nature  takes  on  the  shape  which 
the  copy  discloses  to  it.  Heredity  determines 
capability  :  parental  example  to  a  large  extent 
directs  and  fills  that  capability.  What  the  lov- 
ing and  wise  parent  would  wish  his  child  to  be, 
he  must  seem  to  the  child  to  be,  and  the  only 
way  of  rightly  and  successfully  seeming  is  to 
be  what  he  would  seem. 

Parental  training  educates  also  by  precept  and 
instruction.  Not  all  parents  are  educated  them- 
selves, and  this  mode  of  training  is  in  a  great 
degree  denied  to  them.  Happy  is  the  lot  of 
those  children  whose  mothers  in  their  loving, 
patient  way  are  capable  of  instructing  in  the  ele- 
mentaiy  branches  of  study.  The  kindergarten  is 
good,  but  the  nursery  during  the  period  of  child- 
hood with  equal  teaching  ability  is  better.  The 
youth  too  may  still  subject  himself  often  to 
home  instruction  in  this  or  that  department  of 
study  or  of  skill  with  profit  to  himself.  Only 
when  and  where  capacity  fails  is  this  home  train- 
ing to  be  abandoned. 

Parental  training  once  more  is  effective  in  the 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR.  2T, 

work  of  education  in  innumerable  ways  of  per- 
sonal direct  influence  outside  of  example  and 
proper  precept.  Particular  acts  may  be  sug- 
gested andvcncouraged  or  be  repressed  and  hin- 
dered, particular  tendencies  be  corrected  or  with- 
stood, particular  habits  broken  up  or  confirmed. 
The  parental  heart  should  ever  beat  with  affec- 
tionate solicitude,  and  the  parental  eye  ever  be 
open  to  discern  opportunity,  and  parental  love 
ever  be  quick  to  move  as  such  opportunity  shall 
arise. 

Parental  training  educates  indirectly  but  effect- 
ively in  ordering  the  environment,  the  surround- 
ings of  the  child.  A  well  ordered  family  life,  in 
genial  homes,  and  cheerful  scenery,  tells  might- 
ily on  forming  character.  Regularity,  cleanli- 
ness, temperance  ;  graceful  manners,  unselfish 
ministry,  and  sympathetic  courtesy ;  lofty  aims 
and  earnest  endeavor ;  well-nigh  the  whole 
catalogue  of  graces  and  virtues  are  inculcated, 
"  line  upon  line,  here  a  little  and  there  a  little  " 
incessantly  in  the  well  ordered  ongoings  of 
family  life. 

This  indirect  training  is  exerted  in  the  parental 
determination  of  companionship.  A  man  is 
formed  as  well  as  known  by  the  company  he 
keeps.  The  company  of  a  refined  and  gentle 
mother  can  only  with  great  danger  be  exchanged 
for  that  of  an  ignorant,  coarse,  rough,  perhaps 
reckless  hireling.  Nurse,  maid,  governess,  tutor, 
the  best  substitute  possible  perhaps  in  a  particu- 


24  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCA  TION. 

lar  case,  should  be  selected  with  great  care  and 
with  sound  judgment  ;  and  the  influence  on  the 
character  of  the  child  well  watched.  The 
Roman  rhetorician,  prescribing  how  the  future 
orator  should  be  trained,  required  that  the  child 
should  hear  conversation  only  from  the  lips  of 
the  refined  mother,  lest  a  fixed  habit  of  vulgar 
pronunciation  should  be  formed.  Not  merely 
vulgarity  of  speech,  but  foulness  of  manners 
and  morals,  may  be  the  consequence  of  early 
bad  association.  There  is  call  here  as  every- 
where else  in  education  for  moderation  and  a 
wise  discretion.  A  fond  mother  entrusted 
with  the  undivided  charge  of  a  promising  child 
kept  him  away  from  all  young  companionship, 
till  the  boy  became  master  of  himself  ;  and  he 
showed  himself  in  mature  life  one  of  the 
roughest  and  rudest  of  men.  Life's  temptations 
must  be  encountered  ;  only  so  can  strong  virtues 
be  grown.  But  the  ordinance  is  imperative : 
shun  the  tempter  :  if  to  be  met,  take  him  at  his 
worst  and  weakest,  and  seek  to  acquire  power 
of  resistance  under  the  most  favoring  circum- 
stances at  command. 

In  an  analogous  way,  parental  training  is  in- 
directly effective  in  controlling  the  reading,  the 
sports,  the  visits  and  travels,  the  entire  outer 
life  of  the  child.  These  particulars  sufificienth- 
exemplify  the  modes  of  parental  influence  in  the 
work  of  education.  All  that  can  be  done  here 
is  in  this  comprehensive  way  to  note  the  ways, 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR.  2$ 

the    opportunities,  and    consequently  the  obliga 
tions  and    privileges  of  parents  in  this  educating 
work  to  which  they  are  called. 

§  14.  Technical  Teaching. — Teaching  may 
become  an  art,  a  profession,  or  vocation,  general 
or  special,  and  as  such  it  requires  certain  qualifi- 
cations in  order  to  highest  efficiency  and  success. 
These  qualifications  are  either  more  personal, 
attaching  to  the  teacher  as  a  man,  or  more 
technical,  determined  by  the  nature  of  his  art 
or  calling. 

First  among  the  more  personal  qualifications 
for  efficiency  in  the  work  of  education  is  that  of 
being  syinpatJietic  and  coniniunicative.  It  is  the 
teacher's  function  to  impart  nutriment  to  the 
growing  spirit  and  to  call  forth  and  train  its 
diverse  activities.  In  order  to  this,  he  must  be 
of  a  sympathetic  nature,  one  who  can  put  himself 
readily  into  communication  with  his  pupil, 
engage  his  attention,  enlist  his  confidence,  his 
respect,  his  affection.  It  was  a  just  remark  of 
Xenophon  of  old  that  "  he  cannot  teach  who 
does  not  please."  He  must  also  be  able  to  im- 
part to  the  receptive  nature  thus  enlisted  what 
he  has  to  impart  of  mental  food  or  mental  train- 
ing. 

Another  requisite  in  the  personal  character  of 
the  teacher  is  earnestness.  Education  is  a  work 
demanding  energy  and  seeks  an  end  of  highest 
importance.  It  is  a  work  that  will  not  prosper 
where   there  is   indifference,   listlessness,  aimless- 


26  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

ness.  The  teaclier  must  ever  hold  himself  forth 
as  a  model  ;  and  an  earnest  activity  is  an  essen- 
tial in  character.  He  can  arouse  the  interest  of 
his  pupil  only  as  he  is  aroused  himself.  "  Pas- 
sion is  contagious."  If  his  teaching  be  without 
interest  on  his  part  it  will  go  for  nothing  worth 
on  his  pupil's  part.  Not  only  needs  he  to 
manifest  a  genuine  and  deep  interest  in  the  pro- 
ficiency of  his  pupil,  which  is  the  special  object 
he  is  expected  to  accomplish,  but  in  order  to 
this  he  needs  to  maintain  ever  a  freshened  inter- 
est in  what  he  teaches.  This  indeed  the  teacher 
will  often  find  to  be  a  difificult  thing,  especially 
where  only  elementary  branches  of  knowledge 
are  to  be  taught.  But  this  consideration  should 
only  inspire  a  more  energetic  effort  of  will  that 
should  be  sustained  by  a  sense  of  fidelity  to  his 
undertaking  and  of  self-respect,  and  proper  human 
interest  for  the  highest  good  of  his  charge.  In 
some  way  he  may  provide  that  the  subject- 
matter  of  his  lesson  be  studied  afresh  in  some 
particular  or  other,  some  new  truth  be  attained, 
some  additional  knowledge  secured  ;  or  the 
manner  of  teaching  may  be  studied  with  a  view 
to  improvement  in  that  art ;  or  the  mental  con- 
dition of  his  pupil  be  carefully  considered.  In 
some  way,  ever  a  specially  awakened  interest 
should  be  carried  by  the  teacher  into  his  class- 
room. It  is  indispensable  to  the  right  discharge 
of  his  trust  that  he  show  himself  in  all  his  work 
to  be  earnest. 


THE  TEACHING  FACTOR.  2; 

Still  another  requisite  in  a  successful  teacher  is 
technical  skill ;  he  must  understand  his  own  art 
and  be  trained  to  practice  it  intelligently  and 
dextrously.  Teaching  is  an  art  in  the  higlicst 
and  best  sense  of  that  word.  No  art  or  pursuit 
can  be  deemed  to  be  more  important  to  the 
world,  than  that  of  nourishing  and  shaping  aright 
the  forming  character  of  the  young.  Its  princi- 
ples, its  ends  or  aims  both  in  general  and  for 
special  conditions  and  idiosyncrasies,  its  methods, 
may  be  known.  The  facility  and  dexterity 
which  practice  alone  can  give  may  be  acquired. 
The  teacher  is  required  to  know  his  art  both  in 
theory  and  in  practice.  Normal  schools  are 
properly  felt  to  be  necessities  in  the  educational 
provisions  of  the  state. 

The  teacher  must  be  an  expert  in  his  art  gen- 
erally and  must  also  be  well  conversant  with  the 
particular  department  in  which  he  is  to  teach. 
The  specialist  in  instruction  cannot  carry  his 
mastery  over  his  own  specialty  in  knowledge  too 
far,  but  he  needs  in  order  to  protect  himself  and 
his  instructions  from  a  narrow  one-sidedness  to 
keep  himself  ever  abreast  with  the  progress  in 
other  sciences  and  arts.  He  needs  thus  to  un- 
derstand well  his  special  science  or  art  not 
only  in  its  own  intrinsic  characteristics  but  also  in 
all  its  relationships  toother  fields  of  truth  and  art. 

Once  more,  it  is  needful  to  his  best  success  that 
the  teacher  be  invested  with  a  certain  autJiorita- 
tiveness.     For  the  special  occasion   of  his  teach- 


2  8  THE  FAC  TORS  IN  ED  UCA  T/OiV. 

ing  in  the  special  study  and  the  special  pupilage, 
his  authority  as  a  teacher  should  be  paramount  to 
that  of  parents,  of  faculty,  of  text-book.  Not 
that  he  should  regard  himself  or  be  regarded  as 
infallible  in  his  opinion  or  his  rule  ;  or  that  he 
should  use  his  rightful  authority  immoderately 
or  unwisely.  But  in  so  far  as  he  is  teacher,  his 
very  office  requires  that  he  teach  as  having 
authority.  In  this  teaching  sphere  it  is  his  to 
direct  the  time  and  place  and  method  generally 
of  study;  the  method  of  preparation  and  also 
the  method  of  instruction,  whether  catechetically 
or  by  lecture  ;  whether  orally  or  by  written  exer- 
cise ;  by  direct  personal  address  to  the  individual 
or  representatively  and  mediately  through  a  desig- 
nated member  of  the  class,  or  by  concert  of  reply 
to  his  interrogations,  or  by  becoming  himself  the 
interrogated, — in  fine  as  it  respects  all  the  details 
of  instruction.  From  parent  or  guardian  or 
pupil  he  may  receive  wish  or  suggestion,  but  not 
dictation.  The  responsibility  is  his;  his  should 
be  the  corresponding  independence  of  action. 
He  must  also  in  the  matter  of  discipline  be 
sovereign  ruler  to  the  full  extent  at  least  of  his 
delegated  authority.  If  he  be  associated  with 
others  he  must  appear  before  his  special  charge 
as  clothed  with  the  entire  authority  of  the 
associated  body  of  instruction  in  his  particular 
field,  and  he  should  feel  and  act  as  thus  being 
entrusted  with  their  full  right  and  power  of  rule. 
The  authority  in  such  association,  moreover,  must 


THE   TEACH lA'G  FACTOK. 


29 


be  held  and  exercised  as  a  representative  author- 
ity, not  as  absolute  and  undivided,  but  as  dele- 
gated and  so  far  limited.  But  the  very  nature  of 
teaching,  the  essential  character  of  the  relation- 
ship between  teacher  and  pupil,  involves  this 
prerogative  of  authority.  The  teacher  must  feel  it 
to  belong  to  him  and  to  be  in  him  in  order  that  he 
may  teach  with  the  needful  confidence  ;  the  pupil 
must  recognize  this  in  order  that  he  may  be  in  the 
needful  spirit  of  docility  for  best  proficiency. 

§  15.  Of  the  more  properly  technical  requi- 
sites for  the  most  efficient  work  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  the  first  to  be  mentioned  is  that  of 
congruous ncss  in  relation  to  his  special  charge. 
Between  jarring  natures  and  jarring  moods,  the 
sympathetic  work  of  teaching  can  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  prosper.  Idiosyncrasies  of  character 
and  peculiarities  of  condition  in  the  case  of  the 
pupil  demand  consideration.  The  successive 
stages  of  his  proficiency  likewise  require  corre- 
sponding adaptations  in  the  teacher.  For  the 
earlier  and  tenderer  growths  the  more  delicate 
touches  of  a  woman's  nature  must  be  regarded  as 
preferable,  while  for  the  tougher,  stiffer  qualities 
of  a  later  age  the  firmer,  sterner  treatment  of  a 
man  will  generally  be  more  effectual.  Still  far- 
ther the  respective  relationships  of  the  pupil  in 
innumerable  directions  will  ever  suggest  adapta- 
tions both  in  the  character,  the  training,  and  the 
condition  generally  of  the  teacher. 

In  the  next  place  are  to  be  mentioned  those 


30  THE  FACTORS  IX  EDUCATION. 

requisites  in  the  teacher  which  are  determined 
by  the  conditions  and  instrumentaHties  of  his 
work.  Place  and  time  make  their  respective 
exactions, — a  room  and  an  hour  given  up  singly 
and  solely  for  his  work,  where  and  when  no 
interruption  can  come  or  be  expected  to  come, 
and  the  one  thing — teaching  and,  learning — is  to 
engage  exclusive  attention.  Then  as  to  in- 
strumentalities concerned  in  his  art,  suitable 
objects  for  object  lessons,  maps,  charts,  and 
blackboards,  text-books  and  books  of  reference, 
— the  teacher  must  not  only  be  able  to  command 
these  for  his  needs  but  must  also  be  trained  him- 
self to  make  a  ready  and  effective  use  of  them. 

Still  again  the  methods  of  his  work,  the  partic- 
ular processes  by  which  he  effects  his  purpose, 
suggest  certain  corresponding  requisites  in  the 
teacher.  He  must  thus  ever  be  able  to  present 
in  his  own  personal  condition  and  spirit  a  model 
of  character  generally  and  also  of  mental  attain- 
ment and  skill.  He  must  also  be  able  to  meet 
whatever  demands  may  be  made  of  him  in  the 
diverse  processes  of  teaching,  whether  in  the  way 
of  catechetical  instruction,  drawing  out  what 
may  be  required  of  his  pupil's  knowledge  and 
thought,  both  to  show  his  fidelity  in  preparation 
and  also  fitly  to  call  into  active  exercise  his 
active  powers  of  imagination  and  reflection  ;  or 
of  exposition  of  obscure  or  difficult  points  in 
study ;  or  of  formal  lecture  in  more  or  less 
extended  and  methodical  discourse. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   PUPIL. 

§  i6.  The  pupil  or  learner  is  the  subject  fac- 
tor in  the  work  of  education  in  whose  active 
nature  the  interaction  of  all  the  factors  ensfafred 
in  the  work  takes  place.  This  factor  unites 
readily  in  itself,  by  virtue  of  its  essential  activity, 
that  in  which,  that  with  which,  and  that  for 
which  the  work  is  done — subject,  medium,  object. 
It  is  relatively  more  passive  or  receptive  ;  it  is 
yet  active  in  its  very  receptivity^  receiving 
nourishment  and  training,  not  like  clay  or  mar- 
ble, inert  and  lifeless,  but  sympathetic,,  respon- 
sive, reacting  in  all  impression.  It  is,  moreover, 
itself  the  aggressive  and  dominant  factor  in  all 
proper  educational  exercises  and  practice  as  distin- 
guished from  simple  instruction.  It  may  yet  in 
a  loose  and  rather  popular  way  be  conveniently 
characterized  as  the  subject  in  the  work  of  educa- 
tion. 

As  such  it  presents  itself  to  the  educator  as  a 
complement  of  capabilities  which  it  is  necessary 
for  him  distinctly  to  apprehend  and  scrutinize. 
They  are  comprehensively  the  general  attributes 
of  man  considered  as  subject   to  growth  towards 

31 


32  THE  FACTORS  IX  EDUCATION. 

a  certain  kind  of  perfected  character — tliis  char- 
acter being  determined  by  their  innate  capabili- 
ties and  to  be  interpreted  out  of  them.  Human 
nature,  as  capable  of  growth  into  an  ideally  per- 
fected manhood,  is  thus  the  essential  subject  of 
the  educational  work.  The  educator  needs  to 
know  these  capabilities  in  their  particular  nature 
and  relationships. 

The  pupil  or  learner — the  subject  with  which 
the  educator  has  to  deal — has  then  certain 
nature-given  capabilities.  They  may  be  stud- 
ied under  two  classes,  those  which  are  generic 
and  essential  in  human  nature  as  such  ;  and  those 
which  are  specific,  appertaining  to  individuals  or 
to  groups  distinguished  by  diverse  peculiari- 
ties. 

§  17.  I.  The  generic  capabilities  of  the 
nature  entrusted  to  the  charge  of  the  educator. 
In  regard  to  these  it  is  to  be  observed  at  the 
outset  that  as  they  are  innate,  the  educator 
must  take  them  as  they  are.  He  cannot  re-create, 
cannot  implant  new  capabilities ;  he  can  neither 
supplant  nor  superadd.  He  must  take  nature's 
creature  as  she  gives  it  to  him,  asking  no  ques- 
tions for  his  work's  sake,  for  that  would  be 
utterly  futile,  nor  even  for  curiosity's  sake,  for 
that  would  be  frivolous  and  idle.  He  must  take 
nature  as  given. 

The  essential  endowments  of  human  nature 
may  be    real,    even    although   imperfect.     There 


THE  PUPIL. 


33 


may  be  morbid  tendencies,  disfigurements, 
defects.  These,  however,  may  be,  perhaps, 
often  healed,  or  reshaped,  or  supplemented  by 
patient  care  and  skill.  A  wise  beneficence  has 
abundantly  shown  that  the  lowest  in  the  scale  in 
respect  of  proper  human  endowments,  the  feeblest 
in  body  and  in  mind,  the  most  deficient  in  phys- 
ical organ  and  mental  faculty,  the  dullest  and 
least  impressible,  are  often  susceptible  of  being 
elevated  and  improved.  "  A  man  is  a  man  for 
a'  that,"  for  all  such  defector  distortion:  and 
therefore  capable  of  being  educated.  Leaving 
absolute  monstrosity  which  is  simply  not-human^ 
the  most  lacking  in  capabilities,  if  yet  hunrian, 
should  be  regarded  as  worthy  of  education's  ten- 
derest,  wisest,  most  patient  care.  The  weak  may 
by  a  judicious  hygiene  be  nurtured  up  to 
strength  ;  the  deformed  in  body  or  mind  may  by 
skillful  surgery  be  reduced  to  fairness  and  pro- 
portion ;  the  absolutely  wanting  organ  be  sup- 
plemented by  co-organic  helpfulness.  It  has 
ceased  to  be  a  miracle  that  the  born  deaf  should 
be  educated  to  talk  and  the  born  blind  to  read. 
Even  the  nerve  cells  under  life's  watchful  bid- 
ding replace  each  other  as  the  needs  of  life 
require  ;  and  the  morally  weak  may  gain  needed 
strength  and  help  from  intellect  and  feeling,  as 
on  the  other  hand  the  feeble-minded  or  the 
untrained  in  schools  may  attain  high  wisdom 
by  the  mere  instincts  of  virtuous  and  resolute 
will. 


34  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCA  TION. 

This  fundamental  truth  is  accordingly  to  be 
accepted  and  acted  on  in  all  schemes  of  educa- 
tion. As  JiiDiiaii,  every  cJiild  of  humanity  possesses 
all  the  essential  endowments  of  man.  He  has  a 
true  bodily  nature,  however  diseased  or  de- 
formed ;  and  this  body  of  his  is  a  subject  of 
growth  and  culture  which  can  be  fed  and  trained 
up  to  a  certain  degree,  at  least,  of  ideal  health 
and  vigor.  It  is  the  part  of  education  to  pro- 
vide and  make  effectual  this  needful  nutriment 
and  discipline  to  the  fullest  extent.  As  human, 
also,  every  child  of  humanity  has  a  mental  or 
spiritual  nature,  comprehending  every  essential 
mental  endowment.  However  weak,  or  how- 
ever disproportioned,  he  possesses  sensibility, 
intellect,  will — a  true  rational  nature.  Essen- 
tially active,  this  spiritual  nature  is  ever  at  once 
aesthetic,  intellectual,  and  moral  ;  and  when 
viewed  as  the  collective  complement  of  these 
three  functions  in  their  harmonious  and  sym- 
metrical union  and  exercise,  it  is  recognized  as 
truly  rational.  It  is  the  part  of  education  to 
recognize  each  of  these  essential  endowments 
as  present  in  every  being  regarded  as  human. 
They  are  co-essential  and  complementary  attri- 
butes. Without  an  aesthetic  nature,  that  is,  with- 
out a  capability  of  communicating  with  other 
organic  natures  in  the  world  around  him— of 
reciprocating  interaction  with  them — his  own 
essential  activity  would  be  objectless  and  there- 
fore ever  remain   a  mere   zero,  a  barren  potency. 


THE  PUPIL. 


35 


Without  intelligence  he  could  neither  direct  nor 
choose,  nor  achieve,  and  he  must   remain  but  an 
empty,  fruitless   endowment,  a  very  nothing  to 
himself  and    to    the    intelligences    around    him. 
Without    will,    without    a    power    to    direct    his 
senses,  his  imaginings,  his  observations  and  his 
reflections,    or     even     his     executive     faculties 
towards    a    purposed    end,   he   is    but    a   madly 
driven  float  on  a  havenless  sea,  feeling-,  knowing- 
perhaps  his  sad   condition   and  destiny,  but  only 
thereby  more  pitiable  and  despicable    than  the 
senseless   log    by    his   side.     Indeed    without    a 
directive    power,    what    could    any   aesthetic    or 
intellectual    endowment    ever    avail    or    profit  ? 
An  utterly  undirected  sense  and  imagination  and 
intelligence  could    never   in  any    proper  import 
of  the  phrase  be  said  to  be  either  truly  apprehen- 
sive of    beauty  or   of   even    imperfect   form,   or 
productive  of  it — to  be  able  to  feel  or  to  create 
real  form  ;  or   further  to  observe  to  any  use  of 
knowledge  or  to  produce  a  proper   thought  or 
judgment — educe  any  truth — from  any  supposed 
observation    or     mental     apprehension.      These 
three  functions,  the  function  of  form   both  recep- 
tive as  in  aesthetic  sense,  and  also  productive,  as 
in    proper   art  ;    the    function   of    truth,  or    the 
apprehensive    and    the    proper   thinking   intelli- 
gence ;  and    the  function  of  will,  the  self-direc- 
tive of  aesthetic  and  intellectual  activities  as  well 
as  of  subordinate  executive  determinations,  are 
essential    and    necessary  each  to  the   other   and 


36  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

all  to  the  entire  rational  nature.  Every  human 
being  has  and  must  have  each  and  all  in  larger 
or  smaller  degree  and  have  them  all  in  some 
degree  larger  or  smaller,  of  co-relationship  in 
reciprocating  organic  ministry. 

Every  true  educator  must  accordingly  meet 
his  charge,  however  to  appearance  or  by  repre- 
sentation unpromising,  with  the  assured  convic- 
tion in  his  own  mind  that  as  human  his  pupil  is 
capable  of  being  nourished  and  trained  up  to  an 
indeterminable  degree  of  perfection  in  manhood 
both  as  to  expansion  and  to  symmetry  of  form, 
for  the  rational  nature  of  man  which  never  dies  is 
ever  growing  while  it  lives.  Moreover  each  ra- 
tional capability  has  its  corresponding  object  with 
which  it  naturally  communicates,  reciprocally 
and  responsively  acting  and  being  acted  upon. 
It  follows  that  fields  of  study  which  are  naturally 
fitted  to  their  respective  mental  capabilities  are, 
one  and  all,  open  and  accessible  more  or  less  to 
every  subject  of  education.  There  is  no  reason 
as  there  is  no  ground  of  truth  in  the  excuse  for 
setting  aside  a  particular  study  that  the  student 
has  no  capacity  for  it.  If  there  be  deficiency  in 
any  particular  case,  the  fact  is  only  good  and 
urgent  reason  for  the  awakening  and  developing 
the  faculty  in  defect  by  special  training  in  the 
very  field  that  the  deficient  capacity  demands. 
More  commonly  the  fact  of  deficiency  is  attribu- 
table to  culpable  negligence  in  the  previous 
training  which  has  crowded  out  the  fitting  object 


THE  PUPIL.  37 

for  evoking  and  exercising  the  particular  capa- 
bility by  other  studies  more  attractive  or  conven- 
ient to  teacher  or  pupil.  The  records  of  educa- 
tion abundantly  show  that  the  veriest  dullard  in 
this  or  that  branch  of  knowledge  or  skill  at  an 
earlier  age  has  been  brought  out  and  up  to  emi- 
nence in  that  very  pursuit.  For  a  single  in- 
stance :  one  who  in  his  college  career  was  styled 
the  mathematician  of  his  State  from  his  seeming 
incompetency  to  comprehend  the  most  simple 
rudimentary  mathematical  truth,  became  by  his 
own  persistent  determination  in  after  years  a 
distinguished  professor  of  mathematics  in  a 
■prominent  college  of  the  country. 

In  his  pupil,  then,  the  educator  is  to  find  a 
nature  of  manifold  capabilities,  all  so  far  as  essen- 
tial in  a  truly  human  being,  subject  to  an  indefi- 
nite degree  of  growth,  of  expansion  and  vigor, 
and  all,  the  least  and  feeblest  as  well  as  the  best 
endowed,  to  be  nurtured  and  trained  by  his 
patient  skill,  up  to  a  full  symmetrical  man- 
hood, even  according  to  the  ideal  of  life  and 
character  prefigured  in  his  creation.  More  than 
this  indeed  :  he  is  to  find  in  every  human  life  an 
instinct  urging  it  on,  as  well  as  guiding  it,  to  a 
full  realization  of  the  design  and  end  of  its  being 
as  intended  by  its  maker.  This  instinct  is 
indeed  often  blunted  and  cramped  and  as  often 
perverted  or  misdirected  ;  but  it  is  an  innate 
characteristic  and  undying  as  the  soul  itself. 
The  ingenuity  of  the   teacher  will  be   tasked   to 


3  8  THE  FA  CTORS  IN  ED UCA  TION. 

devise  means  of  awakening  it  when  dormant  or 
of  strengthening  it  when  in  any  degree  active. 
His  labor  will  for  the  most  part  be  well  recom- 
pensed, "  A  free  curiosity,"  said  that  profound 
philosopher  as  well  as  experienced  teacher,  St. 
Augustine,  "  has  more  force  in  our  learning  than 
an  enforcement  through  threats."  And  what  is 
true  in  regard  to  the  culture  of  the  intelligence  is 
true  also  in  regard  to  the  improvement  of  the 
whole  nature.  Instinct  is  stronger  than  law.  It 
is  a  mighty  helper  in  the  work  of  teaching. 

§i8.  These  manifold  capabilities,  moreover, 
are  to  be  educated  not  only  in  their  intrinsic  na- 
tures and  attributes,  but  also  in  their  manifold 
relationships.  Man  is  an  organic  part  of  an  envi- 
roning universe,  with  which  his  life  and  destiny 
are  in  vital,  inseparable  connection.  So  close 
and  vital  is  this  connection  that  ethical  science 
places  social  duty  side  by  side  coordinately  with 
personal  duty,  and  unites  condition  with  charac- 
ter as  constituting  the  comprehensive  object  or 
end  in  human  duty  ; — character  is  involved  ivith 
condition.  It  is  a  half  truth  that  man  is  the  crea- 
ture of  circumstances  ;  he  reacts  on  circumstances 
and  determines  them  ;  they  are  alike  subject  to 
the  principle  of  organic  reciprocation.  Educa- 
tion must  train  to  the  fullest  freedom  and  sympa- 
thy in  wide  degree  and  manner  between  man  and 
his  surroundings.  His  endowment  interacts  in 
closest  sympathy  and  interdependence  with  his 
environment.     This  is  a  principle,  a  law  of  broad 


THE  PUPIL.  39 

significance  and  of  imperative  necessity  that  the 
growth  of  the  human  spirit  involves  the  vital 
union  of  endowment  with  environment— of  char- 
acter with  condition.  Not  only  is  it  needful  that 
it  never  be  forgotten  or  overlooked  ;  it  is  also 
of  high  importance  that  it  be  intelligently  turned 
to  account  in  all  educational  processes. 

Man  is  thus  the  creature  of  time.  His  beingr 
and  life  are  in  time  ;  begin  on  time,  and  flow  on 
with  time,  subject  ever  to  time,  yet  disposer  of 
time.  Time's  fixed  and  orderly  succession,  that 
will  not  be  reversed  or  checked  in  its  flight  and 
cannot  be  repaired  in  its  loss,  and  gives  us  Only 
instants  for  our  use  and  profit,  is  to  be  made  by 
the  earliest  and  most  assiduous  care  and  training- 
the  familiar,  habitual  principle  in  all  life  and  con- 
duct. Punctuality,  diligence,  rest,  are  imperative 
conditions  of  successful  growth  and  life.  Effi- 
ciency, enjoyment,  success,  depend  on  an  habit- 
ual, as  it  were  instinctive  conformableness  to  time. 

A  like  conformableness  is  to  be  cultivated  by 
care  so  to  be  thus  habitual  and  instinctive  to  all 
the  conditions  and  relationships  of  space,  in 
orderly  disposition  of  all  conduct  and  of  all  out- 
ward things  at  one's  disposal — a  place  for  every- 
thing and  everything  in  its  place. 

So  too  the  contents  of  time  and  space,  all  real- 
ities that  interact  in  any  way  with  the  nature 
and  life  of  man,  need  to  be  recognized  and 
brought  into  sympathy  and  reciprocation  of 
helpful  ministry. 


40  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

The  nature  given  to  the  educator  is  thus  to 
be  trained  not  only  in  its  proper  intrinsic  proper- 
ties but  also  in  its  relations  to  all  environing 
agencies,  so  that  on  the  one  hand  stumblings 
and  collisions  and  consequent  failures  shall  be 
avoided,  and  on  the  other  hand  sympathetic  helps 
and  ministries  from  without  shall  be  secured. 
An  habitual  consonance  with  all  these  surround- 
ing and  conditioning  forces  is  to  be  the  fruit  of  a 
faithful  training. 

§  19.  II.  The  specially  modified  capabil- 
ities to  be  recognized  in  the  work  of  education. 

I.  First  there  are  to  be  recognized  the  capabil- 
ities specially  modified  in  respect  of  age.  In  ear- 
liest infancy  we  have  the  stage  characterized  by 
dependence  for  supply  of  food  and  of  object 
on  which  to  act.  Life's  whole  character,  for 
strength  and  worth,  discounting,  of  course,  all 
heredity  as  already  placed  to  the  account  of 
nature,  seems  to  be  staked  on  the  treatment 
given  it  here  at  the  start.  This  has  already  been 
suggested,  §  12.  It  is  added  simply  in  illustra- 
tion, that  we  may  well  suppose  that  if  the  infant 
ear  is  first  among  the  senses  to  be  arrested  and 
to  be  entertained  with  soft  harmonious  sounds, 
prolonged  as  the  sense  may  be  able  to  bear  it 
and  repeated  as  often  as  may  be  allowed,  there 
may  be  effected  the  budding  of  a  musical  genius 
that  if  still  nurtured  and  trained  in  advancing  age 
may  become   a  master  spirit  in  musical  art.     Or 


THE  PUPIL.  41 

if  we  suppose  a  light  of  softened  brilliancy  and 
pleasing  tint  shall  first  engage  the  sense  of  such 
a  budding  nature,  and  this  influence  be  continued 
predominant  over  other  influences,  a  decided 
tendency  to  exalt  color  and  form  over  all  other 
objects  of  interest  and  study  will  be  evolved  that 
will  determine  the  taste  and  calling  and  distinc- 
tion of  the  man.  The  analogy  will  hold  valid 
for  all  of  the  distinguishable  capabilities  of  man's 
diversified  nature  and  for  all  stages  of  his  pupil- 
age. Aptitudes  are  in  this  way  generated  that 
shall  lead  and  govern  all  maturer  life.  The 
twig  so  easily  bent  becomes  the  tree  inclined, — 
stiff  set  upward  or  downward,  to  sunshine  or  to 
shade,  beautiful  or  ugly,  vigorous  and  fruitful  or 
sickly  and  barren. 

The  helpless  dependency  of  infancy  passes  into 
the  budding  self-consciousness  of  childhood,  with 
newly  modified  capabilities,  and  then  into  boy- 
hood with  a  show  of  independence,  but  flexible 
and  yielding  to  superiors,  and  then  into  youth 
with  its  vigorous  assertion  of  independence  in 
limited  fields  of  activity  till  proper  manhood  is 
reached  which,  as  mature,  asserts  its  exclusive 
right  to  choose  its  own  helps  and  guides,  its  own 
mental  aliment  and  arena  of  exertion.  To  each  of 
these  stages,  hardly  distinguishable  in  their  lines  of 
demarcation,  the  capabilities  of  the  pupil  nature 
become  so  far  specially  modified  and  require 
corresponding  treatment  in  all  judicious  and 
eff"ective  education. 


42  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

Next  are  to  be  recognized  the  modifications  of 
native  capabilities  in  respect  to  sex.  The  na- 
tures generally  of  the  two  sexes  being  the  same, 
the  office  of  education  must  so  far  be  the  same. 
Health  and  vigor,  both  physical  and  mental,  are 
to  be  secured  alike  for  each.  The  comparatively 
very  limited  differences  require,  however,  their 
due  consideration.  Nature  has  ordained  for  them 
diverse  occupations  and  offices  and  imposes  a 
corresponding  method  of  educational  treatment. 
This  diversity  of  method,  small  at  first,  widens  to 
the  close  of  the  educational  age.  A  stouter 
frame  and  firmer  muscle  with  corresponding 
mental  endowment  in  the  one  case,  and  in  the 
other  a  more  delicate  sense  and  a  nicer  tact  indi- 
cate the  diversity  of  character  and  life  designed 
by  nature.  Effeminacy  in  man  and  stalwartness 
in  woman  are  alike  vicious.  In  home  training 
as  in  schools  the  slight  diversity  of  treatment  is 
for  the  most  part  safely  left  to  instinctive  prompt- 
ings on  the  part  of  parent  and  teacher.  Outdoor 
life  in  the  one  case  will  be  set  over  against  more 
domestic  occupations  and  recreations  in  the 
other,  while  yet  the  general  path  of  instruction 
will  remain  the  same.  Nothing  in  human  physi- 
ology or  in  human  biography  forbids  that  the 
entire  field  of  general  education  should  be  open 
to  both.  All  science  and  all  art  invite  the  pur- 
suit of  both  alike,  at  least  in  the  general,  with 
only  specific  modifications.  In  particular 
branches  one  may  possess  a  slightly  superior  apt- 


THE  PUPIL.  43 

ness,  with  yet  a  balancing  of  all  the  respective 
capabilities  taken  in  the  aggregate.  Home  duty 
is  the  proper  allotment  of  one,  imposing  lighter 
burdens  and  tenderer  offices;  the  storm  and 
tempest  of  public  care  are  obviously  assigned  to 
the  other.  Accordingly  a  softer  tone,  a  milder 
rule,  a  kindlier  spirit  and  more  winning  manners 
should  characterize  the  educational  work  in 
the  one  case ;  a  sterner,  firmer,  more  exacting 
treatment  in  the  other. 

As  to  the  coeducation  of  the  sexes  in  more 
public  institutions,  reason  and  observation  con- 
cur in  teaching  that  while  the  pupil  remains 
under  the  watchful  guardianship  of  family  and 
home,  it  may  be  encouraged  as  advantageous  in 
manifold  ways.  Economy  and  convenience  gen- 
erally dictate  this,  and  liberality  of  thought  and 
feeling  and  general  sociability  to  be  cultivated 
in  the  pupil,  also  require  it.  When  mature  age  is 
reached,  the  pupil  becomes  his  own  master  and 
the  decision  as  to  his  companionship  in  studies  is 
properly  left  with  him.  But  there  is  a  middle 
stage  of  life,  the  period  when  feeling  and  fancy 
are  exuberant  and  are  accompanied  by  the  burst- 
ing forth  of  the  new  sense  of  freedom  and  inde- 
pendence, when  accordingly  impulse  is  wild  and 
reason  and  thoughtfulness  have  not  attained 
their  ascendency,  the  three  years  of  eighteen  to 
twenty-one  with  the  bordering  years  before  and 
after  that  age,  in  which  period  coeducation  is 
hardly  to  be  commended.     At  this  stage  of  life 


44  THE  FA  CTORS  fJV  ED  UCA  TION. 

it  is  to  be  considered  too  that  the  wider  separa- 
tion in  the  education  of  the  different  sexes  finds 
place.  Lighter  gymnastics  are  in  preference  in 
the  one  case,  rougher  athletics  in  the  other-  In 
mental  training  too,  before  ante-professional 
studies  are  taken  up;  the  curriculum  must  vary 
so  considerably  that  the  regularity  of  routine 
necessary  in  large  institutions  can  with  difificulty 
be  maintained.  The  recent  contrivance  so  called 
of  "  annex  "  arrangements  seems  to  meet  best  all 
exigencies,  guarding  against  dangers  and  furnish- 
ing the  richest  and  best  appliances  for  the  higher 
education. 

Still  further  are  to  be  recognized  the  modifica- 
tions of  capabilities  appearing  in  proper  persona/ 
idiosyncrasies.  These  are  abnormal  propensities 
or  aptitudes  in  some  particular  bodily  or  mental 
activity  craving  or  accepting  with  excessive  eager- 
ness certain  pursuits  or  on  the  other  hand  with 
undue  aversion  repelling  them.  The  tendencies 
in  such  cases  are  to  unsymmetrical  and  accord- 
ingly imperfect  development.  Far  from  being 
nature's  calls  either  to  forcing  processes  which 
shall  give  still  additional  opportunity  and  aid  to 
activities  already  in  excess,  or  to  checking  and 
repressing  treatment,  they  summon  rather  to  a 
specially  careful  nursing  of  the  other  activities — 
those  which  are  relatively  in  defect.  Genius 
demands  a  correspondingly  rich  support  in  the 
entire  nature  and  life.  It  will  care  for  itself; 
provide    its    own     alitiment ;    open    up    its    own 


THE  PUPIL.  45 

ways;  descry  its  own  best  opportunities.  It  is 
the  general  nature  that  it  demands  for  its  own 
sake  to  be  specially  cared  for,  so  that  when  pre- 
eminent ability  in  any  line  of  life  shall  be  called 
out  in  its  maturity  for  its  best  and  highest  exer- 
tions, there  shall  be  no  dead  weight  to  carry,  but, 
contrariwise,  ready  support  and  ministration 
from  the  whole  being  symmetrically  developed 
and  trained. 

Once  more  there  are  to  be  recognized  the 
modifications  of  what  may  be  denominated  the 
extrinsic  capabilities,  resulting  from  peculiarities 
of  condition,  in  parentage,  in  neighborhood,  in 
climate,  in  command  of  influence  or  patronage 
or  means  and  instrumentalities.  Human  life  is  a 
dependency.  In  itself  it  is  utterly  impotent  but 
as  it  has  that  from  without  on  which  it  may  feed, 
and  lean,  and  act ;  and  in  opposition  to  its  wisest 
and  best  exertions  there  arise  obstacles  and 
resistances  which  are  often  too  mighty  for  its 
weakness— neither  to  be  guarded  against  nor  to 
be  overcome.  Nature  is  all-motherly  and  man 
is  her  favorite  ;  but  she  herself  is  subject  to  man- 
ifold limitations,  and  is  compelled  at  times  to 
withhold  succor  where  most  urgently  craved. 
The  rice-fed  cannot  compete  with  the  wheat- 
nourished  brain,  yet  climate  distributes  peoples 
and  assigns  them  their  food.  The  diversities  of 
condition  bearing  on  the  development  of  human 
life  and  character  are  too  vast  and  too  numerous 
to  admit  of  estimation  or  of  enumeration.     How 


46  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

to  supply  what  may  be  wanting  in  the  condition 
of  his  pupil,  and  to  remove  or  help  to  overcome 
what  may  be  adverse  in  it,  and  how  to  make 
available  all  the  attainable  helps  from  the  sur- 
roundings, is  the  problem  ever  pressing  on  the 
mind  of  the  true  and  faithful  educator.  For 
the  most  part  these  diversified  conditions  must 
furnish  their  own  suggestions  as  to  the  way  of 
meeting  them.  Books  are  inadequate  to  supply 
them.  Experience  can  but  partially  avail.  Each 
new  case  must  bring  its  own  interpreter  and 
counselor. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MEANS   AND   APPLIANCES. 

§  20.  Besides  the  two  main  factors  in  educa- 
tion— the  relatively  more  active  teacher  and  the 
more  receptive  pupil — ^there  intervenes,  as  a  kind 
of  intermediate,  a  third  kind  of  agency  in  the 
work  of  education,  which  may  be  generally 
designated  as  that  of  "  means  and  appliances." 
The  teacher  must  necessarily  engage  his  pupil 
with  some  object  on  which  his  developing  active 
nature  shall  exert  itself ;  such  an  object  is  prop- 
erly the  means  by  which  he  attains  his  end  in 
educating.  But  there  are  besides  such  means 
still  other  factors,  more  indirectly  concerned  in 
his  work  yet  more  or  less  necessary,  which 
demand  his  careful  consideration  ;  they  may  be 
classed  under  the  comprehensive  term  appli- 
aiiees. 

Educational  Means. — While  the  personal  force 
of  the  teacher  must  be  recognized  as  the 
most  important  and  most  potential  factor  in 
education,  acting  in  the  several  ways  of  stim- 
ulating, exemplifying,  instructing,  and  guiding 
beyond  any  other  teaching  force,  still  for  its  own 
efficiency    it    finds    other  agencies    necessary  or 

47 


48  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

convenient.  Of  these  some  are  indispensable 
in  order  to  any  interaction  between  teacher  and 
pupil,  for  one  mind  can  reach  another  only 
through  the  bodily  sense  ;  others  are  needful 
aids  to  the  pupil's  apprehension  and  use; 
others  still  are  in  different  ways  more  or  less 
convenient  and  helpful. 

Of  these  necessary  or  convenient  intermediate 
agencies  are  those  numberless  real  and  sensible 
objects  which  may  be  used  either  for  direct 
study  or  illustration  or  stimulation.  All  educa- 
tion in  the  last  analysis  consists  in  engag- 
ing in  due  degree  the  learning  activity  with  the 
object  proper  for  its  exercise.  Object  teaching, 
teaching  through  objects,  is  thus  comprehensive. 
This  object  may  be  presented  as  an  actual 
reality  or  representatively.  Real  "  object  les- 
sons "  are  given  in  all  nature  teaching.  In 
countless  numbers  they  throng  the  path  of 
human  experience  and  growth,  unsought  for, 
unknown  indeed  at  the  first,  of  themselves  awak- 
ening the  sense  and  making  their  impression  on 
the  swelling  and  shaping  character.  It  is  the 
proper  function  of  the  teacher  whether  nurse, 
governess,  parent,  or  professor,  so  far  as  may  be 
to  select  these  objects  and  to  temper  their  action 
on  the  sense. 

The  immediate  presentation  to  the  sense  is  of 
course  as  a  general  truth  to  be  preferred  to  any 
representation  or  mere  description  or  analogical 
suggestion.    Thus  in  Natural  History  the  teacher 


MEANS  AXD  APPLIANCES.  49 

introduces  some  particular  mineral,  or  flower,  or 
insect,  or  as  in  chemical  and  mechanical  science 
some  force  in  actual  operation.  But  often  this 
is  impracticable  ;  and  recourse  is  had  to  repre- 
sentative agency ;  as  diagrams  and  numerical 
figures  and  symbols  in  mathematics  ;  maps  and 
pictures  in  the  physical  sciences ;  and  in  the 
arts,  the  respective  products  of  the  arts,  as 
paintings  and  statuary  in  the  plastic  arts,  read- 
ings and  recitations  in  literature  and  oratory; 
and,  last  of  all,  and  more  than  all,  proper  text- 
books. 

The  advantages  of  proper  object-teaching  are 
manifold.  Real  objects  presented  directly  to  the 
senses  engage  and  fix  the  attention.  They  fasci- 
nate and  please.  They  reveal  directly  and  thus 
fully  and  completely,  not  dimly  and  partially  as 
in  abstract  representation  or  description.  They 
economize  time  and  labor  ; — one  sight,  one 
sound,  one  presentation  to  the  sense,  will  do 
more  towards  awakening  and  rightly  impressing 
the  apprehensive  nature  th-a-n  long  and  repeated 
exposition,  oral  or  written.  The  house,  the 
play-room,  the  school-room,  the  class-room 
should  be  richly  furnished  with  these  instru- 
mentalities. 

§  21.  Under  the  comprehensive  designation 
of  Appliances  may  be  gathered  all  the  manifold 
factors  that  come  in  to  facilitate  or  hinder  the 
work  of  education  which  are  yet  more  distant 
and  indirect  in  their  relation  to  the  work  than 
4 


50  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

proper  means  or  instrumentalities.  First  among 
these  are  those  of  Place  and  Time.  The  govern- 
ing principle  to  be  regarded  in  all  the  regulations 
of  place  and  time  in  education  is  that  which  pre- 
scribes that  there  be  a  fixed  place  and  a  fixed 
time  which  shall  be  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
work.  The  teacher  should  have  nothing  else  to 
think  of  but  to  teach  at  the  time  of  teaching;  he 
should  put  his  whole  soul  into  his  work  that  he 
may  be  at  his  best  as  at  once  sympathetic  stimu- 
lant, model,  and  instructor.  The  pupil  still  more 
needs,  in  order  to  best  proficiency,  to  be  and  to 
feel  himself  to  be,  exempt  from  all  interruption 
and  all  distraction,  both  during  the  time  of  study 
and  the  time  of  receiving  instruction.  Mental 
concentration,  the  power  at  will  to  engage  the 
whole  capacity  of  the  mind  in  study  or  work  of 
whatever  kind,  is  a  leading  aim  and  a  chief 
result  of  true  and  effective  education.  It  is  just 
the  lack  of  this  power  which  marks  the  condition 
of  a  tyro  or  novice,  and  he  needs  before  almost 
all  other  things  the  help  which  comes  from  the 
feeling  that  when  called  to  study  or  to  be 
instructed  he  has  nothing  else  to  think  of. 
Home  studies  here  suffer  a  great  disadvantage  ; 
since  if  he  is  not  subjected  to  actual  interrup- 
tions, there  must  always  be  the  feeling  on  the 
part  of  the  student  that  such  interruptions  are 
possible  or  probable,  and  his  mind  is  conse- 
quently on  the  stretch  to  observe  every  move- 
ment and  to  conjecture  what   it  may  be   or  what 


MEANS  AND  APPLIANCES.  5  I 

it  may  signify.  Home  can  hardly  be  made  to  be 
to  him  the  place  for  the  one  only  possible  thing 
to  be  done — that  of  study.  A  similar  considera- 
tion is  to  be  made  of  the  relation  of  a  fixed  time 
for  study  and  instruction  to  proficiency  in  early 
education  when  the  habits  of  application  are  first 
shaped  and  determined.  "  Any  time  is  no  time," 
is  a  maxim  of  most  emphatic  import  in  train- 
ing. The  hour  fixed  should  be  invariably  and 
punctually  observed — not  a  succeeding  hour,  not 
a  quarter  hour  or  five  minutes,  no,  not  in  free 
allowance  a  single  minute,  late. 

The  necessary  changes  in  time  and  place 
should  accordingly  be  made  in  clear  reason  and 
with  careful  regularity.  They  should  be  as  few 
as  may  be  consistent  with  the  demands  for  rest 
and  recreation.  "  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no 
moss,"  in  learning  as  in  other  occupations. 
Change  of  time  and  place,  involving  change  of 
teacher,  change  of  circumstances,  change  of 
study,  of  text-books,  of  mode  of  instruction,  is 
most  baneful  in  education.  It  is  to  the  growing 
mind  what  frequent  transplanting  or  frequent 
nipping  of  bud  is  to  a  young  plant  ;  one  may 
effectually  stop  growth  by  simply  nipping  bud 
after  bud,  enforcing  a  new  germination  in  some 
other  part,  to  be  nipped  in  its  turn.  A  lean 
soil  and  a  weak  training  are  preferable  to 
frequent  uprooting  and  clipping.  Continuous- 
ness  is  a  prime  attribute  in  all  effective  cul- 
ture.    To    the    dull  and  the  backward  needless 


52  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

change  in  teacher,  in  place,  in  process  is  espe- 
cially harmful ;  the  quick  and  the  apt  may  pos- 
sibly be  able  to  turn  the  untoward  to  account. 

The  number  of  studies  to  be  simultaneously 
pursued  with  a  given  charge  will  be  a  matter  of 
careful  consideration  to  the  educator.  The 
natural  volatility  of  childhood  indicates  the 
necessity  of  short  exercises.  Five,  ten,  fifteen 
minutes  are  enough  for  one  continued  exercise  in 
the  kindergarten.  By  skillful  conversion  of 
needful  rest  into  recreation  or  substitution  of 
fresh  powers  and  organs  for  those  which  have 
been  sufificiently  in  practice  for  the  time,  a  half 
dozen  studies  or  even  more  may  be  profitably 
assigned  to  the  young  learner.  As  mental 
strength  increases,  the  number  may  be  gradually 
reduced.  Only  the  well-advanced  and  strong 
can  wisely  devote  his  whole  time  to  a  single 
study  or  even  to  but  two. 

In  determining  the  number  of  studies  that 
may  be  profitably  pursued  simultaneously  it  is 
obvious  that  the  number  and  the  selection  should 
be  such  as  to  prevent  confusion  between  different 
studies  as  is  likely  to  be  the  case  in  the  study  of 
different  foreign  languages  at  the  same  time  ; 
also  such  as  not  to  hinder  the  ready  connection 
of  one  lesson  with  those  which  have  preceded  ; 
such,  moreover,  as  to  secure  the  benefits  of  men- 
tal rest  and-recreation,  and  allow  the  fresh  exer- 
tion of  mental  activity  in  each  allotment  of 
study;  and,  once  more,  such  as  follow  in  the  due 


MEANS  AND  APPLIANCES.  53 

order  of  dependence  of  one  study  upon  another 
either  in  the  mental  attainments  and  condition 
of  the  pupil  or  in  the  character  of  the  studies 
themselves  in  matter  or  method. 

Both  in  the  selection  of  time  and  of  place, 
regard  should  be  had  to  the  demands  of  health, 
and  of  comfort,  as  well  as  of  freedom  from  in- 
terruption. Well  warmed  and  well  ventilated 
rooms  neatly  and  comfortably  furnished,  as  also 
the  hours  of  greater  mental  freshness  and  vigor, 
or  those  of  the  morning  rather  than  those  of  the 
decline  of  day,  should  be  secured. 

§  22.  In  this  field  of  outer  agency  intervening 
in  the  interaction  between  teacher  and  learner 
is  embraced  still  farther  the  influence  of  class- 
association.  The  advantages  of  such  class-associ- 
ation in  education  are  many  and  obvious.  It  is 
economical  on  the  side  of  the  teaching  force, 
which  can  to  a  large  degree  impart  instruction  as 
well  to  a  number  as  to  an  individual.  It  pro- 
motes in  the  learner  content  and  satisfaction 
witli  his  condition  and  work,  as  he  finds  others 
sharing  with  him  in  all  its  troubles  and  hardships 
and  so  in  s}'mpathy  with  him.  He  learns  much 
from  his  associates  which  cannot  be  so  effectuallv 
imparted  by  one  farther  removed  from  him  by 
age,  by  mental  vigor  and  possessions,  by  more 
advanced  methods  of  holding  and  presenting 
truth.  The  spirit  of  emulation  is  stirred  and  he  is 
stimulated  by  a  desire  of  excelling  or  of  avoiding 
discredit  or  di  -grace,  by  a  proper  esprit  de  coj-ps. 


54  THE  FACTORS  IN  ED  CCA  TION. 

Still  farther  the  social  nature  is  cultivated,  a 
most  important  part  of  a  thorough  education. 
The  cases  in  which  private  individual  training  is 
preferable  are  accordingly  exceptional,  and  the 
reasons  for  resorting  to  it  should  be  clear  and 
urgent.  Still,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  wise 
limitation  in  regard  to  the  numbers  to  be  gath- 
ered into  a  class.  The  number  should  not  be  so 
great  as  to  prevent  an  immediate  personal  com- 
munication between  the  teacher  and  each  mem- 
ber of  the  class,  for  it  is  a  cardinal  principle  that 
the  personal  factor  is  the  mightiest  of  educa- 
tional forces. 

§  23.  In  this  field  of  outer  but  related  educa- 
tional agency,  moreover,  is  to  be  placed  the  stim- 
ulating influence  that  comes  from  marks,  honors, 
prizes,  rewards  of  divers  kinds.  Marking  progress 
or  neglect  involving  consequences  of  indirect 
commendation  or  of  direct  censure,  keeps  alive 
a  sense  of  responsibility  which,  besides  its  imme- 
diate effect  of  inducing  faithfulness,  is  of  itself 
an  important  aim  in  the  best  education.  This 
method  of  stimulating  may  give  way  as  the  pupil 
attains  to  independence  and  self-mastery.  The 
objections  often  urged  against  this  method  of 
stimulation  that  the  duty  should  be  done  for  its 
own  sake  and  that  jealousy,  animosity,  pride,  are 
its  frequent  fruits,  may  well  enforce  careful  con- 
sideration as  to  the  details  of  the  method  and  as 
to  the  extent  to  which  it  shall  be  carried.  But 
the  principle  is  abundantly  enforced  in  the  order- 


MEANS  AND  APPLIANCES.  5  5 

ing  of  human  life  and  conduct  by  its  ordainer  and 
author  and  commends  itself  to  the  approval  of 
enlightened  human  reason. 

If  rewards,  so  for  analogous  reasons,  punish- 
ments may  properly  enter  into  the  system  of 
educational  agencies.  They  are  requisite  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  needful  authority  of  the 
teacher.  They  awaken  through  fear  the  pupil's 
respect  for  this  authority.  They  are  directly  cor- 
rective while  they  serve  to  sustain  a  proper  sense 
of  responsibility  for  manners  and  conduct,  and. so 
are  efficient  preparations  for  mature  life  in 
society  and  under  government. 

The  modes  of  punishment  are  manifold,  invit- 
ing to  a  judicious  selection  and  adaptation  to  the 
special  case  and  condition.  They  vary  in  kind 
and  in  degree,  from  censure  and  rebuke  by  sim- 
ple word  or  frown,  to  degradation  in  rank  or 
place,  isolation,  infliction  of  bodily  pain ;  by 
marks  of  a  culprit  condition,  withholding  priv- 
ileges, suspension  or  actual  removal  attended 
with  more  or  less  of  disgrace  in  manner  or  in 
publicity.  Sovereignty,  as  before  indicated, 
belongs  to  the  teaching  force  immediately  and 
absolutely  or  representatively  and  mediately,  and 
the  involved  right  to  punish  as  well  as  reward  in 
reasonable  support  of  authority  belongs  there 
with  equal  right. 

The  allotment  and  administration  of  punish- 
ment must  be  in  calm  and  firm  conviction  of  right 
and  duty,  in  tenderness,  with  manifest  solicitude 


56  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

for  the  welfare  of  the  offender  as  well  as  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  needful  order  in  the  institu- 
tion— in  judgment  tempered  with  mercy  and 
with  readiness  to  forgive.  The  modes  must  be 
adapted  to  age,  sex,  heinousness  of  offense,  influ- 
ence upon  others,  fitness  to  recover  the  offender. 
Happy  is  that  condition  in  which  the  simplest 
expression  of  disapproval  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  shall  so  touch  the  offender's  sense  of 
wrong,  his  spirit  of  honor,  of  grateful  respect  for 
his  superior,  that  contrition,  confession,  redress, 
shall  quickly  bring  in  response  free  forgiveness, 
order  being  maintained  and  offender  saved. 

§  24.  Still  more  remote  but  active  in  its  rela- 
tion to  teaching  are  the  sources  of  support  to 
educational  means  and  agencies  with  the  involved 
general  superintendence  and  management.  Pro- 
visions for  this  support  are  greatly  diversified  so 
that  exact  classification  is  impracticable.  The 
leading  classes,  however,  may  be  thus  enu- 
merated:  I.  Household  instruction;  2.  Select 
schools;  3.  Privately  endowed  Institutions  rank- 
ing from  academy  up  to  university,  and  including 
the  College,  the  Institute,  and  the  Seminary;  4. 
State  Institutions,  from  the  Common  School  up 
to  the  University. 

The  founder  or  founders  of  course  determine 
the  general  character  and  rank  of  the  institution  ; 
whether  more  or  less  religious  or  purely  secular; 
whether  for  both  sexes  or  for  but  one  ;  whether 
for  special  classes  in  the  community  or  open  to 


MEANS  AND  APPLIANCES.  57 

all  ;  whether  inclusive  of  board  and  lodging 
rooms  or  for  "  day-scholars  "  or  for  both  without 
distinction  ;  whether  for  higher  or  lower  educa- 
tion ;  whether  liberal  and  classical  or  for  special 
professions  or  pursuits. 

§  25.  Privately  endowed  institutions  procure 
from  the  State  the  privileges  of  legally  corporate 
bodies  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  receive  and 
manage  and  convey  any  kind  of  property,  real  or 
personal,  within  designated  limits  and  to  trans- 
mit the  trust  they  thus  receive  and  to  perpetuate 
their  existence,  with  more  or  less  of  other  priv- 
ileges and  immunities.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  privileges  is  that  of  filling  any  va- 
cancy occurring  in  the  board  of  management. 
Such  are  called  "  close  corporations."  To  them 
as  such  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  reasonable 
objection.  The  State  will  see  to  it  that  no  ex- 
cessive power  or  privilege  be  extended  to  them  at 
the  start  and  will  reserve  to  itself  the  sovereign 
right  to  correct  abuses. 

In  prevention  of  two  more  considerable  evils  in 
the  creation  of  such  endowed  institutions  to  be 
managed  by  boards  of  trust  having  educational 
faculties  subject  to  their  general  supervision,  wise 
legislation  should  provide:  i,  that  the  board  of 
trust  be  such  in  number  of  members  as  to  prevent 
any  crippling  of  the  institution  by  divided  coun- 
sels and  aims ;  and  2,  that  the  foundations  be 
not  so  narrow  in  their  provisions  as  to  occasion 
an  inability  to  observe  the  terms  of  the  founda- 


5  8  THE  FA  CTORS  IN  ED  UCA  TION. 

tion  in  the  changes  in  life  and  society  that  a 
long  perpetuated  institution  may  encounter.  It 
is  a  monstrous  wrong  and  evil  to  violate  the  clear 
prescriptions  of  a  monied  trust.  To  allow  it  is  to 
defeat  the  very  object  of  a  trust,  and  so  to  pre- 
vent endowments.  On  the  other  hand  changes 
too  great  and  too  many  to  be  foreseen  or  calcu- 
lated for  beforehand  are  well-nigh  certain  to  oc- 
cur in  the  progress  of  society.  There  may  not 
improbably  be  such  changes  that  the  exact  com- 
pliance with  a  greatly  detailed  instrument  creat- 
ing a  trust  may  more  seriously  defeat  the  intent 
of  the  founder  than  a  clear  violation  of  its  pre- 
scriptions. 

§  26.  State  educational  institutions  are  a 
marked  distinction  of  modern  civilization.  The 
origin  and  progress  of  these  institutions  in  number 
and  magnitude,  and  in  degree  and  mode  of  sup- 
port have  naturally  called  forth  animated  investi- 
gation and  discussion,  A  new  conception  of  the 
origin,  nature,  and  function  of  the  State  and  of 
its  relations  to  the  citizen  has  slowly  but  steadily 
grown  up  in  recent  history,  entering  here  and 
there  in  specific  ways  so  as  entirely  to  transform 
civil  laws  and  the  administration  of  government 
under  them.  The  theory  of  the  nation  now 
spreading  and  giving  signs  of  predominating 
throughout  civil  society  is  that  the  government 
and  all  ofificial  administration  is  for  the  people — 
civil  rule  for  the  ruled,  not  for  the  ruler;  that 
the  nation  has  a  true  corporate  life  of  which  the 


MEANS  AND  APPLIANCES.  59 

citizens  or  people  are  veritable  organic  parts ; 
that  accordingly  the  national  life  as  the  organic 
complement  of  all  the  individual  human  lives 
within  its  bounds,  absorbing  all,  must  live  and 
act  in  all  and  for  all ;  and  moreover  that  it  has  a 
character  and  a  destiny ;  so  that  its  one  compre- 
hensive function  is  to  perfect  the  character  and 
condition  of  all  its  people,  in  a  just  regard  to  the 
character  and  condition  of  sister  nations.  But 
this  is  nothing  else  but  a  true  education  which 
seeks  nothing  beyond  or  beside  the  perfection  of 
character  and  condition  in  the  pupil  life  entrusted 
to  its  charge.  This  is  a  grand,  noble,  altogether 
rational  view  of  national  life.  It  clearly  and  in- 
disputably makes  the  education  of  its  citizens  the 
grand  duty  and  most  sacred  function  of  civil  gov- 
ernment. 

A  vicious  misinterpretation  of  this  theory  is 
most  carefully  to  be  shunned — that  it  involves 
the  concentration  of  all  educational  support 
into  its  own  control  and  direction,  dispensing 
with  the  agency  of  the  individual  or  the  partic- 
ular communities  embraced  within  the  nation. 
All  life  is  single,  while  yet  organic  ;  and  each 
organic  part  has  its  own  special  function  in  the 
promotion  of  the  common  life.  In  human 
society,  although  organized  so  as  to  constitute  a 
veritable  organic  unity,  each  organic  part  must, 
in  order  to  the  highest  welfare  of  the  whole 
and  so  of  itself,  fulfill  its  own  duty;  and  that 
general  life  is  the  richer  and   healthier  in  which 


6o  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCATION. 

the  parts  do  most  in  their  respective  limits  of 
function. 

The  just  inference  from  this  is  that  while  the 
Nation  or  the  State  leaves  to  the  individual  and 
the  local  community,  all  that  they  will  undertake 
or  accomplish,  it  should  yet  in  generous  provi- 
dent care  see  to  it  that  all  its  citizens  receive  the 
education  which  shall  best  effect  the  perfection 
of  the  character  and  condition  of  all.  This  is  at 
least  the  ideal  result  or  aim  which  the  nation 
should  endeavor  faithfully  to  realize.  The  prin- 
ciple is  not  violated  if,  as  in  the  United  States, 
the  general  care  of  educational  interests  should 
be  allotted  to  the  constituent  States. 

This  high  function  of  the  Nation  or  of  the  State 
in  securing  the  perfecting  in  the  highest  degree 
of  tfie  character  and  condition  of  all  its  citizens 
involves  the  duty  to  provide  the  requisite  means 
of  education, — rooms,  furniture,  appliances, 
means,  and  living  teacher, — and  also  the  right 
to  compel  the  citizen  to  a  faithful  use  of  those 
means.  The  right  and  the  duty  both  on  the 
part  of  the  State  and  on  the  part  of  the  citizen 
are  reciprocal — the  duty  to  provide  and  the  right 
to  compel  on  the  part  of  the  State  ;  and  on  the 
part  of  the  citizen  the  right  to  demand  and  the 
duty  to  use  aright  the  provisions  made  thus  for 
his  individual  good  and  so  for  the  good  of  the 
nation. 

The  subordinate  questions  as  to  the  methods 
of  State  interference  in  education — the  extent  of 


MEANS  AXD  APPLIAXCES.  6 1 

its  provisions,  the  limits  as  to  the  stage  of  pro- 
ficiency which  it  shall  seek, — resolve  themselves 
with  comparatively  little  difficulty  in  the  light  of 
this  theory  of  the  true  relationship  of  the  State  to 
its  citizens  as  that  of  a  true  organic  life  which  is 
set  to  seek  its  own  perfection  in  character  and 
condition  and  which  it  can  seek  only  and  must 
ever  seek  in  the  perfection  of  the  character  and 
condition  of  its  individual  citizens. 

The  methods  of  State  interference  will  conform 
to  the  established  method  of  State  functional 
administration. 

The  extent  of  the  provisions  to  be  made  by 
the  State  for  the  education  of  its  citizens  will  be 
determined  by  the  financial  resources  of  the  State 
and  its  opportunities  for  action.  It  may  be  said 
generally  that  the  provisions  should  be  adequate 
to  the  needs,  at  least,  up  to  the  limitations  of 
State  ability. 

In  respect  to  the  stage  of  educational  profi- 
ciency to  which  the  State  should  carry  its  citizens, 
the  general  principle  is  that  the  State  should  aim 
at  securing  for  all  its  people  the  highest,  largest, 
best  education  reasonably  possible.  It  will  be 
found  on  examination  of  any  particular  limiting 
stage,  as  for  instance,  that  of  mere  rudimentary 
instruction, — as  in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, — 
or  of  wider  instruction  in  the  general  facts  and 
truths  of  place  and  time, — geography,  history, — or 
wider  still,  bringing  in  the  rudiments  of  astron- 
omy, and  the  other  physical  sciences,  or  adding 


62  THE  FACTORS  IN  EDUCA  TIOAT. 

elementary  instruction  in  the  mental  sciences  of 
psychology,  logic,  cEsthetics,  and  ethics,  or,  still 
more,  initiating  into  the  dexterities  of  technical 
art  or  trade  or  profession,  that  the  question  will 
turn  on  the  resources  and  available  opportunities 
of  acting  on  the  part  of  the  State  or  civil  com- 
munity or  on  the  abilities,  the  conveniences,  or 
the  inclinations  of  the  people,  and  not  at  all 
upon  the  proprieties  of  State  intervention  as  being 
supposably  confined  to  some  lower  stage.  The 
best  ediieation  possible  for  all  the  people,  so  far  as 
they  can  or  will  avail  themselves  of  it,  is  the  one 
governing  principle.  The  best  and  highest  edu- 
cation of  the  individual  citizen  is  the  best  for  the 
State. 

With  this  view  observations  from  particular 
points  of  investigation  will  be  found  to  be  in 
general  harmony.  The  more  intelligence  and 
culture  in  the  nation,  the  better  every  way  it  is 
for  the  welfare  of  the  people  in  strength  and  in 
happiness, — in  general  well-being.  The  principle 
applies  to  men  of  every  calling ;  the  higher  cult- 
ure and  training  the  more  useful  and  the  better 
every  way  are  both  the  men  engaged  in  the  par- 
ticular calling  and  also  through  them  the  com- 
munity and  the  nation.  The  skilled  mechanic 
earns  the  larger  wages  ;  his  skill  makes  him  an 
abler  man  to  accomplish  valuable  results.  Intel- 
lig-ence  and  culture  are  foes  to  vice  and  indolence. 
If  grave  offenses  be  sometimes  found  with  them, 
the   fact  astounds   us  by  its    strangeness.     Such 


MEANS  AND  APPLIANCES.  63 

offending  is  seldom  fascinating,  seldom  conta- 
gious. It  is  in  the  dens  of  ignorance  where  gross 
vice  flourishes  and  it  is  this  grade  of  vice  which 
most  corrupts,  debases,  and  impoverishes.  There 
cannot  be  too  much  intelligence  in  the  national 
life,  if  the  culture  of  the  ai^sthetic  and  moral 
natures  be  maintained  at  a  correspondingly  ele- 
vated grade,  so  that  the  whole  character  be 
rationally  rounded  out  and  symmetrical. 

The  pecuniary  expenditure  for  this  high  end 
to  the  best  ability  of  the  nation  is  a  wise  invest- 
ment. It  will  in  all  probability  be  reimbursed  in 
full  and  more  by  the  direct  educational  contribu- 
tions from  the  munificence  which  the  highest  and 
best  culture  excites  and  fosters.  It  cannot  work 
unjustly  for  the  poor  who  by  reason  of  their  ina- 
bility to  bear  the  heavier  part  of  the  cost  of  edu- 
cation consisting  in  the  expenditure  of  time  and 
of  money  for  the  support  of  the  pupil  outside  of 
the  public  provision,  are  consequently  disabled 
from  availing  themselves  of  it ;  for  the  cost  comes 
mainly  from  the  taxation  of  the  rich.  The  poor 
are  not  necessarily  excluded  altogether  from  the 
higher  culture.  Energy  and  merit  will  find  a 
way  for  themselves.  The  high  intelligence  of 
rich  neighbors  is  a  blessing  to  the  poor.  Such 
intelligence  may  be  sought  in  right  endeavor,  but 
cannot  rightly  be  made  the  object  of  envy  and 
hate.  General  intelligence,  moreover,  is  the  best 
leveler  in  society,  a  foe  at  once  to  pride  and  to 
envy    and    a    minister    to    content    and    to  self- 


64  THE  FACTOIiS  IN  EDUCATION. 

respect.  Provision  for  the  highest  culture 
offered  to  every  one  even  the  lowest  in  worldly 
condition,  although  it  be  but  here  and  there 
accepted,  is  the  best  safeguard  against  social 
arrogance  and  superciliousness,  and  the  surest 
preventive  of  permanent  class  distinctions.  The 
multiplication  of  pursuits,  ever  increasing  as 
intelligent  civilization  advances,  each  winning  its 
own  honors  through  its  superior  skill  in  its  own 
field,  more  and  more  hinders  invidious  compari- 
son and  consequent  discontent.  Nor  can  it  be 
deemed  unwise  or  in  any  respect  impolitic  to 
allure,  by  generous  provisions  for  the  highest 
and  best  culture,  into  the  pursuits  of  science  and 
art  or  of  professional  life,  the  children  of  afflu- 
ence and  luxury  and  so  redeem  them  from  the 
tendencies  to  worthless  or  even  profligate  lives 
which  naturally  grow  up  where  there  is  exemp- 
tion from  the  necessities  of  toil  and  self-denial. 
So  there  may  be  those  who  will  gratefully  say 
with  George  Herbert  — 

Whereas  my  birth  and  spirit  rather  took 

The  way  that  takes  the  town, 
Thou  didst  betray  me  to  a  lingering  book 

And  wrap  me  in  a  gown. 

Free  investments  on  the  part  of  the  State  in 
the  interest  of  the  highest  and  best  and  largest 
education  are  thus  not  only  legitimate  but  abun- 
dantly reimbursive  and  most  conducive  to  the 
best  interests  of  a  people. 


BOOK   II. 

EDUCATIONAL  WORK --THE    INTER- 
ACTION OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL 
FACTORS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   TWOFOLD    WORK   OF   EDUCATION. 

§  27.  All  growth  involves  a  twofold  proc- 
ess :  a  receptive  and  a  reactive  process.  The 
receptive  process,  in  the  growth  which  education 
seeks,  is  denominated  Nurture.  The  compre- 
hensive reactive  process  may  be  termed  Train- 
ing. Both  of  these  terms  are  derived  from  the 
analogies  of  physical  life  and  are  to  be  taken 
rather  as  suggestive  than  as  exactly  significant  of 
what  they  are  used  to  denote.  They  indicate 
rather  than  define. 

These  two  processes  are  inseparable  in  all 
growth.  They  are,  however,  readily  distin- 
guished in  their  proper  nature  and  result.  N.ur- 
ture  supplies  food  and  so  enlarges  a  capable 
nature  ;  training  uses  this  food  and  so  strengthens 
5  65 


(£  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

and  forms  the  growing  nature.  Nurture  is 
rather  the  conditioning  process ;  training  the 
consummating  process. 

§  28.  In  its  work  of  nurture,  education  wisely 
directs  in  the  selection,  the  apprehension,  and 
the  assimilation  of  the  aliment  to  be  supplied. 
It  prescribes  that  this  supplied  aliment  be  tvholc- 
some,  such  as  will  promote  growth  ;  that  it  be 
suited  to  the  special  condition  of  the  pupil  in 
respect  to  age,  sex,  environment,  stage  of  profi- 
ciency ;  that  it  serve  to  carry  on  previous  alimen- 
tation and  prepare  for  what  is  to  follow  ;  that  it 
be  in  due  quantity  as  of  right  quality,  neither 
scanty  nor  excessive ;  that  time  be  given  for  its 
reception, — in  other  words  and  imagery,  that  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  be  engaged  sufficiently  long  to 
receive  a  full  and  definite  impression  of  the  object 
with  which  it  is  in  interaction.  A  quick  sensi- 
tiveness to  objects  and  events  judiciously  selected 
from  the  thronging  mass  around,  a  sympathetic 
interest  in  them,  and  a  readiness  to  be  impressed 
by  them  is  a  needed  foundation  for  large  and 
rapid  growth. 

In  apprehending,  judicious  education  aims  to 
secure  that  the  aliment  thus  selected  and  sup- 
plied be  taken  with  a  genuine  relish,  which  edu- 
cating skill  should  be  competent  to  awaken. 
Mind  and  body  alike  naturally  hunger  for  appro- 
priate food.  To  like  food  is  to  whet  digestion. 
The  hunger  for  the  aliment  required  for  the  time  d 
may  be  aroused  by  divers  means  which  a  discreet        I 


THE  TWOFOLD  WORK  OF  EDUCATION.        6y 

teacher  will  devise ;  and,  if  needful,  recourse 
may  be  had  even  to  imposed  abstinence  or  to 
short  allowance.  It  prescribes,  moreover,  that 
this  lively  apprehension  be  true  and  accurate, 
full  and  complete ;  and  also  be  clear  and  vivid. 
Such  a  habit  of  apprehending,  so  easily  formed  in 
the  early  growth  of  mind,  is  of  inestimable  value 
for  the  future  life. 

Full  nutrition  is  not  effected  until  the  aliment 
thus  judiciously  selected  and  taken  with  a  zest 
and  truly  and  thoroughly  apprehended,  is  also 
properly  assimilated.  This  process  in  nutrition 
is  inexplicable  alike  in  bodily  and  in  mental  life. 
It  is  an  instinctive  movement  that  under  the 
laws  of  living  and  growing  things  takes  place  of 
itself  when  the  suitable  food  is  once  received  in 
healthy  growth.  Time  only  is  demanded  ;  and 
these  demands  of  time  vary  indefinitely  with  age, 
proficiency,  condition.  To  gorge  and  to  cram 
are  faults  to  be  diligently  guarded  against  as 
hostile  to  wholesome  digestion  ;  to  a  true  and 
healthful  assimilation  of  beauty  and  truth  and 
goodness  as  of  animal  nutriment.  So  far  as  may 
be  and  for  a  general  plan  of  procedure,  educa- 
tion prescribes  that  whatever  nutriment  be  ap- 
prehended,— whatever  form  of  beauty  is  contem- 
plated, whatever  truth  considered,  or  whatever 
purpose  intended— it  should  be  allowed  and  even 
carefull}^  caused  to  pass  into  the  very  life  of  the 
soul  and  so  be  incorporated  in  right  organic  rela- 
tionship into  the  body  of  its  activity  and  feeling. 


68  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

Much  quiet  and  patient  rumination,  or  reiterated 
repetition  of  the  impression  made  upon  the  soul 
by  objects  of  beauty,  truth,  or  goodness,  is  a 
necessary  condition  of  mental  growth. 

The  receptive  process  in  growth,  made  up  of 
the  sympathetic  acceptance,  the  full  and  accurate 
apprehension,  and  the  thorough  assimilation  of 
the  object  of  study,  is  only  preparatory. 
Food  is  for  strength,  and  strength  is  for  ac- 
tion. 

§  29.  It  is  the  proper  function  of  the  training 
process  to  develop  still  further  and  specially  to 
guide  the  activity  thus  enlarged  and  strength- 
ened. The  first  step  in  this  comprehensive  proc- 
ess is  simply  responsive  to  the  impression  made 
by  the  impressing  object.  This,  at  least,  is  the 
first  step  as  the  logically  conditioning  step  in  the 
complex  process.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
any  appreciable  time  always  and  necessarily  inter- 
venes. On  the  other  hand  for  the  most  part  the 
movement  from  first  impression  to  following 
apprehension  and  assimilation,  and  then  to  the 
reactive  part  comprehending  all  its  progressive 
forms  of  response  and  positive  reaction,  may  be 
as  instantaneous  as  impression  and  action  in  the 
mind  following  and  going  on  to  perfect  itself, 
can  be  supposed  to  be.  But  the  movement  may 
possibly  cease  with  any  one  of  the  parts  named. 
Impressions  that  leave  no  appreciable  result  are 
common  with  us  almost  as  the  minutes  of  our 
waking  lives.     Habits  of  listless  impression  are 


THE  TWOFOLD  WORK  OF  EDUCATION.        69 

the  banc  of  mental  life,  easily  acquired,  most 
difficult  to  be  eradicated  or  resisted.  So  the  full 
assimilating  reception  of  truth  ma}'  be  followed 
only  by  the  mere  impress  left  on  the  mind's 
active  being.  Its  activity  is  simply  shaped  or 
turned  ;  except,  perhaps,  as  it  is  quickened  or  re- 
pressed. The  mind  is  in  such  case  but  as  a  mass 
of  plastic  clay  ;  it  is  indented,  so  far  shaped,  per- 
haps lightened  or  weighted  more ;  that  is  all. 
It  simply  gravitates  in  this  new  shape  or  form, 
with  no  spring  of  action  started.  The  mind  sim- 
ply takes  upon  itself  what  is  given  it,  responsive 
only  as  yielding  and  taking  new  form.  The  rich 
experience  of  life  which  is  the  appointed  soil  for 
growing  character,  becomes  thus  utterly  value- 
less for  all  mental  quickening,  as  undigested  food 
only  clogs  bodily  vigor.  Still  this  impression 
wrought  into  and  upon  the  mind,  has  given  a 
form  to  its  active  nature,  which  the  eye  of  con- 
sciousness, when  it  is  opened,  may  observe  and 
recognize  as  the  resulting  state  from  such  im- 
pression. It  abides  ;  the  mind  properly  retains  it. 
This  is  the  mental  attribute  of  rctcntivcness — of 
memory  in  its  simplest  rudimentary  condition. 
It  necessarily  involves  no  intelligence,  except  as 
the  consciousness  of  the  state  is  regarded  as  a 
proper  act  of  the  intelligence,  nor  does  it  imply 
any  purpose — any  act  of  the  will,  except  per- 
haps, as  simply  permissive  and  not  at  all  interfer 
ing  to  guide,  or  to  further  or  hinder.  This  is  the 
primal  element  in    all    mental    life, — that    which 


70  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

conditions  all  subsequent  self-study,  self-develop- 
ment ;  and  on  which  all  education  rests  so  far  as 
prompted  by  the  state  of  the  mind  itself.  As 
the  bodily  life  starts  from  food  first  received,  so 
the  mind  starts  all  its  development  from  this 
primitive  condition  determined  to  it  by  impres- 
sion from  without  or  in  its  interaction  with 
exterior  realities.  There  is  a  form  now  presented 
to  it  while  before  all  was  formless  and  empty  to 
all  observation  by  itself  or  others.  Henceforth 
it  can  never  be  without  such  form  to  invite 
observation  and  reaction  upon  it  ;  for  even  if  the 
primitive  impression  be  apparently  subverted, 
this  can  be  done  only  by  the  intervention  of 
some  new  form,  and  never  absolutely  and 
fully.  The  mind  thus  ever  retains.  Retentive- 
ness,  which  is  simple  memory  as  passive  and  not 
reproductive,  is  a  fundamental  attribute  of  men- 
tal life,  and  signifies  the  mere  form  of  the  mind 
— the  condition  and  shape  of  the  mental  activity 
as  formed  by  some  previous  impression  or  act. 
Of  the  prominence  of  the  form  given  thus  to  the 
mind  in  simple  impression  a  most  instructive 
exemplification  is  to  be  found  in  the  common 
experience  of  what  is  called  "  being  turned  about." 
No  reasoning  with  one's  self  is  sufificient  often  to 
correct  this  error  of  impression  which  for  the 
most  part  is  unconsciously  received.  It  is  just 
because  a  permanent  form  is  thus  determined  to 
the  mind  by  mere  impression  that  the  training  of 
the  mind  for  or  under  the  power  of  impression 


THE  TWOFOLD  WORK  OF  EDUCATION.        7 1 

received  so  imperiously  demands  the  attention 
of  the  educator. 

The  nourishing  and  strengthening  of  any  form 
of  mental  activity  thus  produced  is  the  effective 
condition  of  stabilit}-  and  firmness  to  the  partic- 
ular trait  or  to  the  whole  character,  as  it  is  the 
starting  point  or  germ  of  all  following  growth. 
Something  now  exists  to  be  sprouted  and  nour- 
ished and  trained.  There  is  a  goal  to  start  from 
and  a  post  to  fasten  to  ;  a  basis  and  support  for 
all  future  motion  and  progress.  Education  effects 
its  first  work  with  this  as  its  fundamental  ele- 
ment— a  form  of  mental  activity  received  and 
retained. 

The  process  of  reproduction  is  the  natural 
sequent  of  this  retention  in  growing  life.  The 
impression  received  may  be  transient  as  the  im- 
pressing force  for  the  most  part  quickly  with- 
draws. But  the  process  thus  begun  may  be 
taken  up  and  carried  on  by  the  mind  itself. 
There  is  now  a  positive  activity  exerted  ;  and 
this  state  of  mind  is  known  as  the  imagination. 
It  is  the  more  active  side,  as  the  memory  is  the 
more  passive  side  of  the  mind  regarded  simply  in 
respect  to  its  form,  or  that  attribute  through 
which  it  may  be  recognized  by  itself  in  con- 
sciousness or  by  other  minds  in  mediate  revela- 
tion as  in  look  or  word  or  bodily  act.  Such  is 
the  simple  story  of  the  mind's  growth  thus  far; 
its  sensibility  or  its  capacity  of  receiving  impres- 
sion— of  taking   food — becomes  actual   recipient 


']2  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

and  retainer  in  simple  memory,  and  then  repro- 
duces this  received  form — this  mental  image  or 
pJiantasm,  as  it  has  been  denominated,  when  ap- 
plied to  some  specific  impression.  This  repro- 
ductive process,  which  regarded  on  the  passive 
side  is  known  as  memory  and  on  the  active  side 
as  imagination,  is  now  food  and  stimulus  to  the 
more  complex  and  diversified  forms  of  the  imag- 
ination, as  it  varies  the  simply  reproduced  form 
by  adding  to  it  or  dropping  from  it  more  or  less 
or  by  combining  it  with  other  mental  forms  or 
by  absolutely  new  production.  We  have  thus 
the  distinguishable  stages  of  imaginative  move- 
ment ; — the  simply  reproductive ;  the  partially 
reproductive  ;  the  productive  with  combination  ; 
and  the  positively  creative  imagination. 

The  second  step  in  training,  thus,  is  the  reten- 
tion and  reproduction  of  the  food  that  has  been 
received  and  assimilated.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  activity  of  the  mind  as  of  the  body  may 
be  in  all  this  more  or  less  entirely  instinctive, — the 
properly  directive  power  being  more  or  less  en- 
tirely in  abeyance  ; — the  will  simply  permitting, 
but  neither  impelling  nor  guiding.  It  ma}r 
accordingly  all  take  place  without  being  brought 
out  into  the  distinct  notice  of  consciousness. 
Body  and  mind  grow,  often  effect  their  best 
growth,  when  not  thus  consciously  scanned. 
Still  it  should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  whole 
mind  is  ever  present  in  every  possible  experience. 
The  learner  is  never  separated  from  himself,  nor 


THE  TWO  I  OLD  WORK  OF  EDUCATION.         "J  I 

is  any  organic  part  of  his  nature  separated  from 
another.  In  his  most  purely  instinctive  and 
most  wholly  unconscious  acts  his  whole  self  is 
present — body  and  spirit — and  in  more  or  less 
sympathetic  co-operation.  He  cannot  remember, 
retain  an  impression  without  intelligence,  with- 
out self-direction.  The  whole  intelligent  and 
purposive  soul  .is  present  in  every  feeling  and  in 
every  act  of  memory  and  imagination  ;  its  intelli- 
gence and  will  are,  in  a  true  sense,  active,  for 
their  very  essence  is  activity.  The  whole  field  of 
this  action  is  also  before  the  eye  of  conscious- 
ness in  the  same  sense  in  which  a  natural  or  ex- 
ternal field  is  all  before  the  eye  of  an  observer, 
whether  or  not  this  or  that  particular  object  in 
the  field  is  distinctly  noticed  ;  whether  or  not  in- 
deed the  field  itself  is  actually  discerned.  An 
object  thus  may  be  truly  said  to  be  within  the 
range  of  consciousness,  although  the  conscious 
activity  does  not  actually  and  distinctively  exert 
itself  upon  it. 

§  30.  The  next  step  in  culture,  whether  of 
body  or  of  mind,  after  the  conditioning  food  has 
been  taken  and  digested  in  the  case  of  the  body, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  mind  in  an  analogous  way 
inwrought  into  its  activity  in  the  forms  of  the 
memory  and  the  imagination,  introduces  into 
one  or  other  of  the  ten  thousand  forms  of  active 
life.  The  awakening  and  exertion  of  the  mem- 
ory and  the  imagination  have  indeed  already 
entered  upon  this  stage.     We  have  indeed  here 


74  EDUCATIONAL  VVORJ^. 

but  an  exemplification  of  what  is  occurring  in  all 
life-processes,  one  stage  passing  into  another  in 
imperceptible  degrees,  as  bud  into  flower.  The 
indication  of  the  work  of  education  in  training,  as 
applied  to  the  more  distinguishable  departments 
of  human  life  and  activity,  will  be  given  hereafter 
in  the  several  places  prescribed  by  our  method. 
Here  it  can  only  be  said  that  the  training  should 
be  directed  to  the  selection  of  the  kind  of  activity 
proper  at  the  time  and  in  the  circumstances  to 
be  called  forth,  and  to  the  prompting  and  main- 
tenance of  this  activity.  Strength  comes  only 
by  exercise.  In  a  low  and  limited  sense  there 
may  be  power  in  simple  knowing,  as  there  is  in 
simple  food.  But  the  condition  of  effective 
strength,  of  physical  force  and  agility,  and  also  of 
mental  vigor  and  skill,  as  appointed  by  our  very 
nature,  is  exercise. 

But  exercise  to  be  effective  in  education  must 
be  something  more  than  mere  wild  beating  of 
the  air,  without  aim  or  significance;  something 
more  than  fussy  pottering.  It  must  be  at  least 
rational ;  and  consequently  must  be  penetrated 
and  moved  by  somew^hat  of  sympathetic  interest, 
intelligence,  and  purposive  aim.  Mere  swinging 
of  the  arms  and  idle  twirling  of  the  fingers  will 
not  suf^ce  to  form  the  skilled  pugilist  or  the 
dexterous  juggler ;  nor  will  idle  pencilings,  or 
listless  figurings,  or  empty  musings  make  the 
eminent  draughtsman,  or  mathematician,  or 
thinker,  or  poet.     Effective  exercise  here  must  be 


THE  TWOFOLD  IVO/^ A'  OF  EDUCATION.        75 

intelligent  and  aiming  as  well  as  with  interest. 
It  must  be  concentrated  on  some  particular  ca- 
pability, and  not  loose  and  scattering.  It  must 
'>be  continued  for  more  or  less  of  time — there 
ymust  be  repetition.  It  is  this  continued  action 
or  repetition  which  makes  habit ;  and  it  is  under 
the  natural  law  of  habit  that  action  comes  to  be 
more  or  less  spontaneous  and  instinctive,  putting 
itself  forward  of  itself  whenever  and  wherever 
opportunity  offers,  thus  facilitating  exertion. 
The  efficient  man,  the  successful  man  in  all  fields 
of  achievement  is  the  man  of  habit — the  man 
who  has  trained  his  powers  to  be  instincts,  as  it 
were,  self-prompting  and  self-guiding,  and  ready 
to  act  as  need  may  require,  without  care  or  labor 
or  even  particular  bidding  on  his  part. 

This  part  of  educational  work  in  training  may 
be  well  exemplified  in  its  applications  to  the 
several  stages,  already  indicated,  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  imagination.  First,  the  impression 
received  and  assimilated,  gives  a  certain  shaping 
to  the  mind — a  certain  form  which  more  or  less 
abides.  As  now  a  part  of  the  mind's  own  activ- 
ity, it  is  technically  termed  a  mental  image,  a 
phantasm,  or,  in  looser  phrase  perhaps,  a  mental 
form,  an  idea.  Now  a  fundamental  principle  in 
effective  training  prescribes  that  this  phantasm 
or  idea,  this  act  of  the  imagination,  be  continued 
till  it  becomes  fixed,  incorporated  into  the  mind's 
body  of  activity  so  as  to  be  capable  of  self-main- 
tenance and  also  of    ministry  to   the    mental  life 


']6  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

generally  as  may  be  needful.  This  is  the  first 
step  in  training  after  the  impression  is  received, 
to  make  the  idea  received  in  its  fullest  sense  the 
mind's  own.  This  is  an  indispensable  step  ; 
stumbling,  disgust,  failure,  are  inevitable  conse- 
quents of  neglect  or  omission  here.  It  requires 
time,  more  or  less  in  different  cases.  The  expert 
teacher  is  apt  to  overrate  his  pupil's  capacity  in 
the  beginnings  of  a  study  or  practice,  and  conse- 
quently hastens  on  to  advanced  steps  for  which 
there  is  not  the  requisite  preparation.  The 
maxim,  accordingly,  is  peremptory  :  make  sure 
and  permanent  beyond  all  doubt  or  mistake  the  be- 
ginnings of  study  and practiee.  By  continuance  of 
the  initial  idea  or  movement,  fix  it  in  abiding 
self-maintenance  and  capability  of  spontaneous 
exertion  and  ministry,  so  that  it  be  ready  to  meet 
any  call  for  its  action  and  help.  In  other  words, 
give  the  learner  complete  mastery  of  this  idea  or 
movement,  so  that  it  shall  be  as  it  were  an  instinct 
of  his  nature, 

At  the  next  stage  the  exercise  in  training  be- 
comes the  pupil's  own  origination  of  idea  or 
movement.  Passive,  receptive,  simply  holding 
what  had  been  given  him  before,  he  now  gives 
forth,  produces.  The  law  of  exercise  here  is 
simply  :  let  this  productive  activity  be  continued, 
repeated,  kept  up,  till  the  capacity  of  producing 
is  established  as  a  permanent  and  effective  pos- 
session of  the  mind. 

The   law   of  continuance  or   repetition  is    the 


THE  TWOFOLD  WORK  OF  EDUCATION.        yj 

same  essentially  for  the  succeeding  stages  in 
which  the  original  phantasm  or  idea  has  lost 
somewhat  of  its  simple  and  pure  conformity  to 
the  original  impression,  and  under  the  intelligent 
control  of  the  will  has  combined  with  itself  other 
ideas  or  other  movements;  or  still  farther  has  been 
succeeded  by  actual  new  creative  activity.  The 
law  of  nature  in  training  is  throughout :  continue, 
repeat,  till  the  activity  is  established  and  carried 
so  far  as  may  be  towards  its  true  perfected  con-  ^ 
dition  ;  till  it  become  in  a  true  sense  automatic,  f^  ' 
self-prompting  as  occasion  may  invite  or  allow.  h  , 
This  presentation  of  the  law  of  exercise  in  edu-"  '^' 
cation  runs  counter,  it  is  to  be  acknowledged,  to 
a  certain  mode  of  teaching  and  practice  some- 
what in  vogue.  It  is  recommended  thus  that 
the  pupil  instead  of  being  trained  along  the  line 
of  the  simplest  and  most  elementary  ideas  in- 
volved in  a  given  study,  should  be  introduced  at 
once  to  the  gross  whole  of  the  subject  matter  of 
the  study  and  in  an  analogous  way  in  artistic 
training  should  be  put  on  copying  or  construct- 
ing in  large  masses  or  concrete  wholes.  Thus 
in  learning  to  read,  the  teaching  recommended, 
avoiding  training  in  the  elements  singly,  leads  at 
once  to  the  imitation  or  reproduction  of  sen- 
tences, phrases,  words  in  concrete  forms  and  so 
beginning  with  the  whole  and  ending  with  the 
parts  or  elements.  Thus,  it  is  argued,  the  child 
learns  language — learns  to  understand  speech  and 
to  speak  himself ;   he  does  not  first  hear  elemen- 


y^  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

tary  sounds,  then  single  words,  then  sentences, 
then  continued  discourse.  Such,  it  is  maintained, 
is  nature's  law  in  educating.  But  this  view  is 
altogether  too  hasty  and  partial.  Never  since 
child  has  come  to  speak,  to  put  forth  thought 
into  language,  has  it  been  known  that  its  first 
effort  was  a  perfect,  fully  articulated  word,  expres- 
sing a  definite  idea:  much  less  that  it  first  ut- 
tered a  full  thought  in  fitting  speech.  Just  the 
contrary  of  all  this.  Its  earliest  effort  at  com- 
municating, beyond  at  least  a  responsive  smile 
or  scowl,  has  ever  been  a  simple  effort  of  breath, 
— a  feeble  puff  or  expiration,  repeated  over  and 
over,  how  many  times  no  most  watchful  nurse 
has  ever  been  able  to  count ;  then  after  long 
interval  spent  in  this  initial  practice  there  has 
followed  a  feeble  vocalization — a  cooing  or  a 
mooing,  repeated  countless  times  ;  then  the  sim- 
plest, most  rudimentary  articulation  continued 
often  long  before  it  comes  to  proper  word-forms 
and  still  longer  before  it  can  put  forth  speech- 
forms  or  full  communications  of  thought.  Na- 
ture's practice  in  training  is  thus  from  the 
elementary  to  the  concrete.  So  in  practice,  as 
for  example  in  chirography : — penmanship  is 
quickest  and  best  acquired  by  beginning  exer- 
cises, continued  up  to  a  decided  proficiency  in 
each,  on  the  elementary  strokes,  straight  lined 
and  curved,  sloped,  perpendicular  or  circular,  till 
each  is  mastered. 

The  significance  and  importance  of '  frequent 


u 


THE  TWOFOLD  WORK  OF  EDUCATION.        79 

stated  reviews  of  previous  lessons  are  seen  in  this 
light  of  the  bearing  of  exercise  on  mental  devel- 
opment.  Not  only  does  this  practice  of  review- 
ing nourish  up  in  the  mind  of  the  learner  a  feeling 
that  every  acquisition  is  in  some  more  or  less 
definite  way  to  be  made  serviceable  in  the  future 
of  study  and  therefore  should  be  diligently  and 
thoroughly  effected,  but  the  repetition  of  a  pre- 
vious activity  involved  in  the  review  is  an 
important  condition  of  mental  progress.  Expe- 
rience has  shown  that  the  labor  spent  in  review 
effects  for  mental  growth  and  discipline  two  or 
three  times  as  much  as  that  on  the  advance 
lessons.  Hence  the  usefulness  of  the  prevalent 
method  of  beginning  each  successive  lesson  with  a 
review  of  the  preceding  lessons  whether  in  study 
or  practice,  and  of  regular  reviews  at  the  end  of 
each  week,  or  month,  or  term,  or  year,  or  course. 
This  is  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  all  growth 
that  it  must  be  continued  and  continuous,  each 
new  acquisition  bound  to  the  old  by  actual 
living  union — a  work  of  time  and  reiteration. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   CONDITIONS   OF   EFFECTIVE    WORK   IN 
EDUCATION. 

§  32.  Effective  work  in  education  involves 
divers  conditions,  some  of  which  are  intrinsic, 
being  essential  constituents  or  characteristics, 
and  others  are  extrinsic,  being  determined  by 
the  relationships  of  the  work  to  its  surroundings. 
The  principles  here  are,  first,  that  the  work  of 
education  be  true  to  itself,  ever  bearing  its  own 
essential  characters  or  elements  along  with  it ; 
secondly,  that  all  true  work  among  men  is  in 
organic  dependence  on  outer  realities  and  their 
respective  state  or  condition.  The  more  com- 
manding and  comprehensive  of  these  conditions, 
which  in  another  form  and  from  another  point  of 
view  have  in  part  already  been  presented  but 
which  will  bear  repetition,  are  as  follows: — 

(i.)  Effective  work  in  education  must  he  sj'//i- 
patJictic.  Teacher  and  pupil  must  be  in  sym- 
pathy with  each  other  and  each  with  the  study 
or  medium  in  which  the  work  takes  place.  The 
lowest  degree  or  stage  of  possible  sympathy  is 
that  of  mere  communicability  which  exists  by 
the  very  necessities  of  nature  between  all  rational 

80 


CONDITIONS  OF  EFFECTIVE  WORK.  8 1 

beings.      Positive      aversion      presupposes     this 
degree  at  least  of  sympathy,  since  no  aversion 
can  exist  where  there  is  no  possibility  of  inter- 
action.    But   from   this  lowest   stage    sympathy 
may  rise  to  high  degrees  of  reciprocating  affec- 
tion and  interest.     The  higher  and  warmer  and 
freer  this  sympathy  becomes,  the  more  effective 
will  be  the  work  of  nurturing  and  training.     The 
teacher  is  thus  bidden   to  bring  to   his   work   a 
living  personal  interest  in  his  pupil,  in  his  well- 
being  generally,  but  especially  in  his  proficiency 
in  the  immediate  study  or  course  of  training  at 
the   time.     This   he    can  do  by  reason  of  their 
common  nature  as  human  beings,  however  dull 
or  repulsive   his    charge   may   be.     The   sympa- 
thetic interest  with  which  a  teacher  approaches 
a  lovable,  sympathetic,  bright  and  eager  mind  or 
class  of   minds    may   differ  widely  from  that  in 
which  he  drives  himself  to  the  loathsome,  stupid, 
and  indifferent  or   even    the   sulky   and    mulish 
pupil.     But  a  true  beneficent  sympathy  may  be 
and  ought  to  be  in  lively  exercise  even  in   the 
latter  case.     There  must  also  be  as  a  condition 
of  effective  work  in  teaching  a  true  sympathetic 
interest  in   the   particular   study  or   exercise    in 
hand.     In   mere  rudimentary  instruction  involv- 
ing the  unceasing  repetition  of  the  same  elemen- 
tary lessons,  there  is  a  great  liability  to  fall  into 
a  cold  unsympathetic  condition  which   is  hostile 
to  any  worthy  result  in  teaching.     It    is    conse- 
quently a  peremptory  duty  on   the  part  of  the 
6 


82  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

teacher  that  he  diligently  train  himself  to  bring 
to  his  charge  a  mind  evidently  and  impressively 
awake  and  interested.  Such  a  freshness  of  inter- 
est may  always  be  awakened  in  some  of  the 
several  obvious  ways,  as  elsewhere  already  indi- 
cated, §  14  ;  and  the  teacher  is  inexcusable  who 
fails  to  awaken  it  in  himself.  He  must  be  in 
sympathy  too  with  the  work  itself  of  teaching ; 
he  must  appreciate  its  dignity  and  its  worth ;  he 
must  find  satisfaction,  as  he  may  indeed  find 
satisfaction  of  the  highest  degree,  in  the  prosecu- 
tion and  result  of  the  work. 

In  order  to  this  sympathetic  relation  between 
teacher  and  pupil  the  instruction  must  of  course 
be  preferably  and  almost  exclusively  oral.  Voice 
is  the  special  organ  of  sympathetic  emotion,  and 
word  the  natural  medium  of  communication 
between  soul  and  soul.  But  oral  instruction 
involves  the  entire  personal  presence  and  so  ever 
enlists  as  its  auxiliary  the  whole  power  of  the 
living  teacher  as  model  and  as  inspiration.  The 
written  word,  the  proper  lecture,  must  ever  be 
regarded  as  but  a  representative  and  substitute, 
and  so  as  characteristically  the  inferior  and 
weaker.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  training,  the 
lecture  is  entirely  out  of  place,  except  perhaps  in 
extreme  necessity.  To  the  professional  student 
it  may  be  to  some  extent  and  in  some  cases  the 
preferable  way,  as  where  the  needful  text-book 
is  not  within  reach  ;  or  where  the  instruction  is 
but  incidental  or  auxiliary,  as  where  light  may  be 


CONDITIONS  OF  EFFECTIVE  WORK.  83 

shed  from  the  history  or  the  literature  of  the 
subject-matter  of  instruction,  where  guides  and 
helps  need  to  be  indicated,  methods  of  study  dis- 
cussed, topics  for  investigation  presented,  and 
the  like.  The  lecture  addresses  itself  to  the 
learning  mind  predominantly  as  receptive ;  it  is 
only  through  consequence  or  suggestion  that  its 
proper  activity  is  engaged.  It  is  accordingly 
better  suited  to  the  mind  already  well  furnished 
and  trained.  The  discussion  of  particular  ques- 
tions of  fact  or  truth,  taken  up  for  one  cause  or 
another  out  of  the  orderly  scheme  of  a  science — 
questions  that  may  call  for  special  investigation 
or  have  special  applications  not  easily  finding 
place  in  the  general  scheme — may  call  for  the 
special  lecture.  In  proper  object-teaching,  more- 
over, there  is  occasion  and  indeed  a  special  de- 
mand for  the  viva  voce  lecture,  as  in  the  descrip- 
tive lessons  of  Natural  History  and  the  experi- 
mental instruction  of  Physical  Science,  as  also  in 
studies  directed  upon  diagrams,  or  maps,  or  art- 
products  addressed  to  the  eye  or  ear.  The 
proper  written  lecture,  whether  read  or  pro- 
nounced from  memory,  had  its  origin  and  its  vin- 
dication in  the  necessities  of  a  bookless  age.  In 
this  present  age  of  books,  and  particularly  in  this 
day  of  a  well-nigh  superabundant  educational  lit- 
erature, the  special  call  for  written  lectures  in  edu- 
cation has  ceased.  The  text-book  is  everywhere 
at  hand,  for  all  departments  of  instruction,  for  all 
stages  and    conditions   of   mental    training.     Its 


84  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

recommendations  are  manifold  and  decisive.  It 
addresses  directly  the  active,  while,  as  already 
stated,  the  lecture  engages  chiefly  the  receptive 
nature,  and  during  the  whole  period  of  mental  de- 
velopment up  to  the  time  of  proper  maturity  in 
vigor  and  discipline,  it  is  the  active  nature  which  is 
the  dominant,  and  the  receptive  is  the  subsidiary. 
The  text-book  furnishes  the  conditions  for  the 
best  employment  of  all  that  large  part  of  educa- 
tional time  when  the  pupil  is  not  in  immediate 
communication  with  the  teacher.  It  is  thus  a 
thing  of  high  economical  value,  scarcely  to  be 
overrated.  It  calls  forth  the  direct,  independent 
effort  of  the  pupil  to  interpret  out  its  teaching; 
to  connect  the  study  of  to-day  with  the  preced- 
ing study  and  so  at  once  serves  to  strengthen  the 
memory  as  well  as  to  lead  to  the  discovery  of 
the  scientific  relationships  in  the  successive  parts 
of  the  teaching  ;  and  to  enable  him  to  understand 
precisely  what  stage  of  the  developing  science  he 
has  reached  and  in  a  general  way  what  remains 
for  his  attainment.  The  text-book  invites  a  pre- 
cision of  statement  of  fact  and  principle,  in  defi- 
nition and  in  proof,  and  a  clear,  exact  method  of 
development  which  the  written  lecture  can  sel- 
dom attain  without  detriment  to  the  rhetorical 
characteristics  of  proper  rational  discourse. 
The  lecture  is  indeed  a  favorite  mode  of  instruc- 
tion with  the  ambitious  writer  and  speaker,  seek- 
ing  oratorical  effect  in  novel  dogma  or  original 
exposition  and  method  ;  and  under  the  power  of 


CONDITIONS  OF  EFFECTIVE  WORK.  85 

this  temptation  it  is  made  to  serve  for  the  enter- 
tainment, the  stimulation,  or  the  admiration  of 
the  student,  rather  than  for  his  discipline  in  self' 
sustained  study  or  for  his  thorough  mastery  of 
science.  In  fine,  it  would  seem  from  reason,  and 
the  opinion  is  corroborated  in  actual  experience, 
that  the  text-book  is  the  indispensable  ally  and 
helper  with  inconsiderable  exceptions  in  all  gen- 
eral education,  from  the  rudimentary  to  the 
proper  professional  stage,  whether  the  instruction 
be  oral  or  by  proper  lecture.  It  is  a  great  econo- 
mizer of  time  and  care  and  labor  ;  it  necessitates 
mental  activity  ;  and  induces  accuracy,  thorough- 
ness, system,  in  acquisition.  As  such  an  efficient 
instrument  in  all  education  it  needs  to  be  pre- 
pared with  highest  skill,  accurate  and  thorough 
and  in  exactest  logical  method  ;  more  to  be  val- 
ued indeed  as  a  type-form  and  mold  for  the 
developing  thought  of  the  learner  than  for  the 
quality  or  quantity  of  the  knowledge  which  it 
imparts.  . 

The  text-book  gives  full  opportunity  for  oral 
instruction,  and  so  for  all  sympathetic  communi- 
cation between  teacher  and  pupil.  The  regu- 
larly recurring  examination  on  that  portion  of 
the  text-book  assigned  for  the  particular  lesson 
in  the  recitation  room,  the  questioning  and 
answering  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and  pupil, 
gives  just  the  occasion  and  the  prompting  requi- 
site for  this  free  intercommunication.  Special 
care  will  be  necessary  that  this  dialectic  freedom 


86  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

be  not  hampered  or  prevented  by  excessive  num- 
bers in  class  instruction. 

A  reciprocating  sympathy,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, is  as  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  as 
of  the  teacher.  It  is  his  duty,  as  under  nurture 
and  training,  to  carry  into  his  work  a  lively 
interest  and  affection  ;  to  put  himself  by  deter- 
mined effort  in  freest  communicatio-n  with  his 
teacher ;  to  love,  as  is  possible  for  him  always, 
to  be  taught  and  trained.  He  must  overcome 
aversion,  and  indifference,  and  be  positively  in 
active  sympathy  with  his  task.  The  teacher 
himself  by  his  own  manifested  sympathy  and 
interest  may  do  much  to  awaken  this  interest  in 
his  pupil ;  for  feeling  is  contagious. 

§  33.  (2.)  A  second  intrinsic  condition  of  ef- 
fective work  in  education  is  that  it  be  earnest. 
Dull,  prosy,  dragging  work  is  as  ineffective  and 
so  wasteful  and  vicious  in  teaching  or  in  learning 
as  everywhere  else.  It  is  doubly  harmful  here 
indeed  because  of  the  contagiousness  of  feeling 
already  referred  to  between  teacher  and  pupil. 
The  earnest  teacher  makes  the  earnest  learner. 

§  34'  (3-)  A  third  condition  of  effective  work 
in  education  is  that  it  be  aiming.  The  teacher 
must  have  distinctly  in  his  own  mind,  both  the 
comprehensive  result  of  his  teaching  work,  which 
of  course  must  be  in  organic  interdependence 
and  subordination  to  the  full  result  of  the  entire 
educational  work  for  his  pupil  and  likewise  the 
best   result  of  his  entire  life,   and  also  have   dis- 


CONDITIONS  OF  EFFECTIVE  WORK.  8/ 

tinctly  in  view  the  result  of  the  particular  study 
or  exercise  in  hand  in  its  special  bearing  and  rela- 
tionship to  those  more  comprehensive  results. 
Education  is  a  rational  procedure ;  and  aiming  is 
a  first  function  of  reason.  Hence  thorough  edu- 
cation involves  the  necessity  of  determining  the 
result  in  the  several  stages  of  progress,  so  as  to 
discover  how  far  the  governing  aim  has  been 
reached,  how  it  has  been  most  promoted,  how  it 
has  been  hindered  ;  how  it  has  furthered  or  im- 
peded other  departments  of  training.  The  pro- 
ficiency of  the  pupil  needs  to  be  the  perpetual 
study  of  the  faithful  and  efificient  teacher.  More- 
over, by  showing  to  his  pupil  that  he  has  before 
him  ever  an  aim  in  his  work  towards  whicli  he  is 
making  his  way,  he  best  inculcates  by  his  own 
effective  example  this  high  quality  of  character 
in  his  pupil. 

§  35.  (4.)  A  fourth  condition  of  effectivework 
in  education  is  that  it  ever  be  developing.  Its 
essential  function  is  to  effect  a  growth ;  and 
every  lesson,  every  study,  every  exercise  should 
carry  on  a  proper  growth,  an  advance,  an  enlarge- 
ment, an  increase  of  thought.  In  order  to  the 
best  and  highest  efificiency  here,  it  should  first 
make  sure  the  attainment  already  made  ;  and 
make  a  continuous  advance  from  it,  connecting 
the  new  with  the  old  in  a  proper  vital  union. 
Observation  shows  a  positive  waste  of  a  very 
large  proportion  of  educational  time  and  labor, 
simply  by   the   failure   to   connect   successive   at- 


SS  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

tainments  in  knowledge  or  skill.  Every  exercise 
should  look  back  to  what  has  preceded  and 
forward  to  what  is  to  come.  It  is  not  enough 
simply  to  acquire,  to  attain.  Accumulation  is 
not  accretion  and  true  growth.  To  cram  is 
indeed  often  to  hinder  progress.  One  of  the 
most  important  habits  to  be  formed  in  early 
training  is  that  of  connecting  each  attainment 
with  what  has  preceded  and  with  what  is  to 
follow.  A  perpetual  mental  growth  may  thus  be 
secured  under  the  law  of  habit,  making  the  con- 
necting work  spontaneous  or  instinctive,  while 
fragmentary,  disconnected  study  or  practice, 
fails  to  improve  and  commonly  enfeebles.  The 
present  is  pre-eminently  a  reading  age ;  but  of 
the  multitude  of  busy  readers,  few  can  be  found 
who  must  not  in  candor  confess  that  the  years  of 
incessant  but  discontinuous  reading  have  brought 
them  virtually  little  or  nothing  of  mental  riches 
or  strength,  and  the  chief  legacy  they  leave  is  an 
incurable  or  invincible  incapacity  to  promote  real 
growth.  Education  should  see  to  it  that  all 
mental  training  have  the  nature  and  character  of 
a  true  continuous  growth.  It  should  indeed  go 
farther  than  this  even.  It  should  carefully  form 
the  habit  in  the  pupil's  mind  of  connecting  all 
new  attainments  in  knowledge  or  skill  with 
those  already  made  and  at  the  same  time  of 
shaping  them  for  a  like  connection  with  what  are 
to  follow.  Three  things  are  necessary  here : 
first,  that  the  past  attainment   be   revived  ;  sec- 


CONDITIONS  OP  EFIECTIVE  WORK.  89 

ondly,  that  a  positive  increase  be  made  to  it  ; 
and  thirdly,  that  preparation  be  made  for  further 
advance.  Systematic  reviewing  for  this  great 
end  of  securing  a  habit  of  steady  growth  is  thus 
seen  to  be  indispensable  in  successful  training. 
In  this  peremptory  requirement  of  securing  a 
continuous  growth  is  involved  the  prohibition 
of  changes  in  studies,  in  teachers,  in  schools. 
Change  here  in  itself  is  a  great  evil  inasmuch  as 
it  necessarily  more  or  less  interrupts  growth.  If 
change  be  made,  the  reasons  for  it  should  be 
clear  and  imperative. 

§  36.  (5.)  A  fifth  condition  in  effective  educa- 
tion is  that  it  be  wisely  provident  of  the  means, 
the  appliances,  and  the  helps  needful,  both  in  a 
general  way  of  equipment  in  the  way  of  build- 
ings, libraries,  apparatus,  specimens,  and  also 
particularly  for  each  particular  lesson  or  study. 
This  is  a  condition  which  has  a  broad  sweep,  but 
can  be  explicated  only  in  the  way  of  exemplifica- 
tion of  a  few  particulars.  They  are  such  as 
these :  place  for  study  and  for  practice  as  also 
for  receiving  instruction,  that  shall  be  attractive, 
neat  and  tasteful,  quiet  and  remote  from  disturb- 
ance or  distraction,  furnished  with  comfortable 
seats  and  desks  ;  well  warmed,  well  lighted,  and 
well  ventilated  ;  provided  with  reference  books, 
maps,  diagrams,  specimens  and  generally  objects 
needed  for  object  lessons,  etc.  Free  expenditure 
of  money,  time,  labor,  is  warrantable  if  not 
rather  obligatory,  as  estimated  in   the  light  of  a 


go  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

richly  endowed  and  quickened  mind.  Nowhere 
is  parsimony  or  niggardliness  more  baneful  than 
in  education, 

§  37-  C^-)  -^  sixth  condition  of  effective  edu- 
cation is  that  it  be  watclifnl  and  precautionary. 
Thrifty  farming  involves  not  only  generous 
fertilization  but  also  good  fencing.  A  vigilant 
and  energetic  prevention  of  whatever  can 
obstruct  the  work  of  training  is  imposed  as  an 
urgent  duty  on  every  educator  in  whatever 
department  of  trust  or  care.  The  comprehen- 
sive principle  here  is  that  the  mind  of  the  learner 
be  perfectly  guarded  against  all  obstructions,  all 
interruptions,  all  distractions  in  order  that  it 
may  be  wholly  absorbed  in  the  one  duty  of  the 
time.  Noise  without  and  noise  within,  sights 
foreign  to  the  present  task  that  dazzle,  or  amuse, 
or  only  entertain  and  occupy  the  thought ;  out- 
door occupations,  remembered  sports,  antici- 
pated pleasures,  and  the  ten  thousand  other 
distractions  incident  to  a  student's  life,  are,  so 
far  as  may  be,  carefully  to  be  guarded  against. 
A  teacher  must  ever  keep  an  open  eye  over 
all  surroundings. 

§  38'  (7-)  Ox\^  additional  condition  in  effect- 
ive educational  work  needs  to  be  specified  : — it 
is  that  it  associate  with  itself  judicious  recreation- 
Recreation  is  not  absolute  rest.  Such  rest 
indeed  is  but  another  name  for  death.  Even  in 
that  chief  rest  for  man — the  nightly  sleep — there 
is  large  activity.     The  heart  beats  on,  the   lungs 


CONDITIONS  OF  EFFECTIVE  WORK.  9 1 

heave,  the  blood  circulates  ;  and  mind  as  well  as 
body  participates  in  the  activity,  recalling  past 
acts  and  affections,  shaping  new  forms  of  objects 
and  new  courses  of  events,  working  out  intellect- 
ual problems,  and  even  framing  new  purposes  and 
new  dispositions.  Recreation  implies  only  rela- 
tive rest ;  relaxing  strain  of  effort  or  changing 
the  function  at  work.  It  is  a  law  of  nature  in  her 
kind  and  wise  provision  that  no  department  of 
our  being  be  left  to  inaction.  The  law  aims  at 
the  same  result  as  the  volatility  already  noticed 
in  early  life — the  symmetrical  development  of 
the  whole  being.  It  is  a  law  that  educational 
systems,  all  educational  work  indeed,  must  in 
wisdom  recognize  and  enforce. 

The  essential  character  and  design  of  recrea- 
tion disclose  to  our  view  divers  attributes  which 
are  to  be  adopted  as  principles  to  regulate  it. 
First,  it  must  obviously  be  wisely  adapted  to 
the  age  and  degree  of  development,  the  task 
in  hand,  the  condition  generally.  Early  age 
demands,  as  before  noticed,  great  frequency  in 
the  changes  of  study  and  practice,  as  well  as  of 
the  condition  generally  of  body  and  mental 
relationship.  Mature  life  feels  the  need  of 
fewer  changes,  if  yet  more  thorough  as  well  in 
pursuits  as  in  condition.  Tasks  that  are  new, 
little  practiced,  before  the  spontaneities  of  action 
have  become  developed,  are  more  fatiguing  and 
hence  are  more  in  need  of  frequent  recreation, 
than  the  old,   the    practiced,   the  familiar.     The 


92  EDUCATIONAL  WORK. 

kind  of  change  for  salutary  recreation  varies, 
too,  indefinitely  with  age,  sex,  study  and  occu- 
pation, as  well  as  condition  generally ;  judicious 
recreation  thus  must  be  adaptive  to  particular 
needs  and  occasions. 

Secondly,  recreation  should  be  preferably 
ediicatory.  It  should  conspire  with  the  serious 
work  of  education  and  be  in  harmony  with  it. 
As  the  benefits  of  recreation  result  in  a  large 
degree  from  simple  change  of  occupation,  this 
co-operation  of  recreatory  service  may  for  the 
most  part  be  easily  effected. 

Thirdly,  recreation  becomes  more  effective  in 
more  contrasted  change  ;  as  from  mind  to  body  ; 
from  book-study  to  oral  recitation ;  from  indi- 
vidual to  concert  exercises ;  from  abstract 
studies  to  the  more  concrete  ;  from  indoor  con- 
finement to  outdoor  freedom,  and  the  like. 
Contrast  thus  enters  into  the  very  essence  of  rec- 
reation;  and  should  be  intelligently  introduced 
in  appointing  and  regulating  it. 

Fourthly,  recreation  must  be  attractive.  The 
change  which  it  proposes  should  preferably  be 
such  as  to  excite  and  to  gratify.  It  may  often 
call  for  stimulations  from  without  itself.  There 
may  be  mentioned  here  two  elements  which  are 
in  themselves  of  a  somewhat  foreign  character  to 
proper  recreation,  but  which  may  with  judicious 
care  be  enlisted.  One  is  the  element  of  chance. 
It  is  this  which  gives  ^  peculiar  charm  to  hunt- 
ing  fishing,  as  well  as  to  many  kinds  of  games. 


CONDITIONS  OF  EFFECril'E  WORK.  93 

The  caution  to  be  prescribed  here  is  that  the 
tendency  to  substitute  reHance  on  luck  or  good 
fortune  for  honest  and  wisely  directed  effort,  a 
tendency  only  too  common,  should  receive  no 
encouragement  or  strengthening.  The  other 
element  is  that  of  competition — an  element 
abundantly  exemplified  and  illustrated  in  all 
educational  life. 

Fifthly,  the  most  effective  recreation  must  be  to 
a  very  predominating  degree  a  veritable  change 
from  tvork  to  play.  In  other  words,  it  must 
release  from  the  bondage  of  task-work,  from  the 
tension  of  strained  muscle  or  mental  faculty,  to 
the  freedom  and  relaxation  of  the  instinctive, 
spontaneous,  self-prompted  and  self-supported 
outgoings  natural  to  life  itself.  Recreation  is 
thus  in  its  highest  form  play,  in  the  sense  of  a 
free  spontaneous  outgoing  and  ongoing  of  the 
physical  and  spiritual  nature  of  man.  Its  full 
necessity  suggests  at  once  that  freedom  is  the 
highest  condition  and  ultimate  destiny  of  man. 
Happy  will  be  that  condition  of  the  race  in 
which  it  shall  not  be  a  rare  exotic,  but  verily 
indigenous  in  a  redeemed  and  perfected  nature. 
Wise  recreation  may  serve  both  as  encouraging 
symbol  and  efficient  help  in  its  advance. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   SPECIAL   MODIFICATIONS   OF   EDUCATIONAL 
WORK. — I.    PHYSICAL    EDUCATION. 

§  39.  The  twofold  character  of  educational 
work  and  the  conditions,  intrinsic  and  extrinsic, 
of  its  successful  prosecution  being  determined, 
the  way  is  prepared  for  the  fuller  exposition  of 
its  nature  as  it  is  effected  in  the  several  depart- 
ments of  human  life  and  activity.  The  two  com- 
prehensive departments  are  those  of  the  Body, 
and  of  the  Mind  or  Spirit — the  Physical  and  the 
Mental  or  Spiritual.  It  is  necessary  however 
to  bear  in  mind  that  the  body  and  the  spirit  in 
man  compose  a  single  organism,  so  that  the 
highest  health  and  vigor  of  no  part  or  member 
can  be  secured  without  a  corresponding  condi- 
tion of  health  and  vigor  in  the  other  parts  and 
members  and  in  the  whole  composite  organism. 
Education  must  accordingly  in  its  direction  of 
its  specific  work  in  any  part  keep  in  full  view  the 
demands  of  the  whole  man.  Idiosyncrasy  of 
temperament  or  peculiarity  of  condition  and  cir- 
cumstances may  indeed  lead  to  special  prepon- 
derance of  this  or  that  kind  of  culture  ;  bodily 
force  and  agility  may  in  one  man  eclipse  his  intel- 

94 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION.  95 

ligence  and  even  his  morality  while  in  another 
spiritual  eminence  may  shine  forth  from  out  of  a 
feeble  body ;  the  largest  wealth  of  endowment 
and  culture  in  human  society  generally  may 
involve  a  great  diversity  of  gifts  and  attainments 
in  its  individual  members.  Still  the  truth  re- 
mains :  the  best  culture  of  the  particular  must  be 
vitally  affected  by  the  culture  of  the  whole 
organism.  The  principle  holds  :  if  one  member 
suffers,  the  whole  body  suffers  ;  and,  conversely, 
the  well-being  of  the  whole  is  conditional  to  the 
well-being"  of  the  particular  member.  Man  is  a 
unit ;  he  has  one  life,  one  vital  energy,  that  per- 
vades both  body  and  spirit  and  makes  them 
vitally  one. 

§  40.  Of  the  several  properties  of  true  educa- 
tional work  in  the  care  of  the  body  accordingly, 
is  to  be  enumerated,  first,  that  it  be  such  as  will 
best  train  to  the  best  Diinisti'y  to  the  zvJiole  man, 
and  also  at  the  same  time  be  in  subordination  to 
the  mental  or  spiritual  life.  The  spirit  is  higher 
in  rank  than  the  body ;  mental  health  and  vigor 
are  more  than  physical  well-being.  While  often 
the  cares  of  the  body  must  engross  attention  and 
the  mind  be  for  the  time  out  of  thought,  still 
this  culture  of  the  physical  frame  should  ever 
be  regarded  as  helpful  condition  of  the  para- 
mount culture  of  the  spirit.  The  best  condition 
of  the  mortal  body  is  that  of  best  ministry  to 
the  welfare  of  the  immortal  spirit  that  inhabits 
it. 


96  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

§  41.  A  second  property  of  true  educational 
work  of  this  class  is  that  it  recognizes  the  laiv  of 
habit.  This  great  law  of  life  is  that  a  given 
activity  being  put  forth  in  any  direction,  it  will 
continue  to  move  on  in  that  direction  till 
arrested  or  diverted  by  some  other  force  and  to 
repeat  itself  on  every  recurring  occasion.  As 
exercise  brings  strength,  continued  activity  thus 
grows  in  itself  more  vigorous ;  and  as  the  sympa- 
thetic nature  of  an  organism  causes  every  move- 
ment to  draw  along  with  it  all  associated  activ- 
ities, it  multiplies  its  allies  and  aids  all  along  its 
course.  This  is  the  principle  of  growth.  Edu- 
cation should  therefore  maintain  a  continuous 
culture  ;  should  guard  against  interruptions  other 
than  those  of  needful  rest  or  higher  or  more 
imperious  demands.  The  law  of  habit  has  its 
limitations ;  it  is  limited  by  the  law  of  satiety  in 
the  case  of  food  or  alimentation  and  of  fatigue  in 
exercise.  But  it  is  of  the  highest  consideration 
in  all  nurture  and  training;  and  should  be  turned 
to  the  best  account.  It  prescribes  regularity 
and  uniformity  in  food  and  training,  forbidding 
change  except  for  reason.  Such  reason  there 
may  be  from  the  limitations  named  of  satiety 
and  fatigue ;  and  still  more  from  the  necessity  of 
a  development  of  all  the  divers  faculties  of  our 
nature  which  is  incompatible  with  a  too  exclusive 
attention  to  one.  It  is  still  a  law  which  within 
its  own  realm  must  be  recognized  and  obeyed. 
Under  its   beneficent    working   judicious   educa- 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION.  97 

tion  carefully  nourishes  up  and  trains  some  par- 
ticular activity  until  the  stage  of  self-subsistence 
and  guidance  is  reached  when  the  activity  will 
cease  to  require  further  care  and  will  itself  lend  a 
fostering  and  helpful  ministry  to  other  activities 
to  be  in  like  manner  nurtured  up  to  maturity 
and  self-support.  Habit,  moreover,  becoming  a 
kind  of  second  nature,  makes  easy  and  attractive 
or  even  well-nigh  compulsory  or  necessary  what 
had  been  difificult  or  repulsive.  It  quickens 
every  sense  as  well  as  every  active  function. 
Education  therefore,  we  see  in  a  new  light, 
shuns  as  one  of  the  worst  evils  change  in  food  or 
training,  till  maturity  is  attained,  unless  for 
decisive  reason. 

§  42.  A  third  characteristic  of  true  educa- 
tional work  in  its  special  application  to  individual 
subjects  is  that  it  suffers  itself  to  be  prompted 
and  guided  by  natural  instincts,  by  actual  experi- 
ences, by  social  conditions.  Nature  is  a  wise 
leader ;  and  experience  is  her  best  interpreter. 
She  demands  that  she  be  trusted  largely  even  in 
healing  and  restoring,  much  more  in  developing 
a  healthy  nature.  She  is  true  to  herself ;  and 
the  uniformity  of  her  workings  creates  and  vali- 
dates experience.  She  is  in  sympathy  too  with 
all  environing  influences  of  every  kind.  Common 
sense  is  her  mouth-piece  and  is  to  be  followed  in 
wise  educational  work;  as  it  forbids  the  erratic, 
the  novel,  the  extravagant.  Reason  indeed  rules 
common  sense  and  imposes  limitations  at  need. 

7 


g8  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

Reason  favors  progress,  improvement ;  and  pre- 
scribes such  change  as  true  progress  requires. 
Reason  too,  with  the  general  assent  of  common 
sense,  also  summons  medical  wisdom  and  skill  to 
the  aid  of  nature  in  exceptional,  abnormal  cases, 
for  which  the  generality  and  needful  uniformity 
of  natural  laws  hinder  her  from  making  adequate 
provision.  Still  farther  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  peculiarities  of  age,  sex,  family,  and 
social  relationships,  together  with  outward  cir- 
cumstances, also,  as  those  of  soil,  climate,  and 
the  like. 

But  inasmuch  as  it  is  an  integral  part  of  a 
good  and  true  education  to  nourish  and  develop 
the  bodily  nature  for  its  own  sake  as  well  as  still 
more  emphatically  for  the  sake  of  the  mind  or 
spirit  that  animates  and  uses  it,  education  will 
do  what  lies  in  its  power,  to  develop  into  their 
most  perfect  condition  all  the  divers  functions  of 
the  animal  system.  It  will  seek  to  secure  for  the 
digestive  function  wholesome  food,  at  fitting  and 
regular  intervals,  in  ample  supply  and  suitable 
variety — animal  and  vegetable,  shunning  the 
noxious  and  harmful  intoxicant  or  stimulant  and 
preventing  all  excess  in  indulgence  of  natural 
appetite.  It  will  wisely  see  to  it  that  for  the 
respiratory  function  there  be  a  full  supply  of 
pure  air  of  suitable  temperature  and  neither  too 
moist  nor  too  dry,  and  that  all  hindrances  to  its 
freest  exercise  from  dress  or  other  cause  be  re- 
moved.    It  will  also  provide  for  a  generous  and 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION.  99 

unobstructed  circulation  of  nourishing  blood, 
pervading  all  parts  of  the  system,  so  as  to  supply 
needful  warmth  or  heat  for  all  life's  movements 
as  well  to  supply  all  waste  by  judicious,  systematic 
exercise.  Here  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
even  in  ease  and  indolence,  nature  herself  carries 
on  a  steady  activity  as  she  exercises  the  various 
bodily  functions.  She  thus  cares  for  the  invalid 
or  the  imprisoned  ;  but  she  imposes  farther  duty 
on  the  normal  condition,  as  she  urges  to  the 
vigorous  outputting  of  the  bodily  forces.  These 
she  puts  on  service  in  order  to  meet  her  full  de- 
mands for  a  healthy  circulation.  It  is  to  be 
added  that  there  is  activity  which  stimulates  cir- 
culation in  the  brain  ;  and  this,  as  life  advances, 
replaces  the  muscular  activity  which  earlier  life 
maintains.  Then  there  are  to  be  enlisted  the 
divers  aids  of  wholesome  and  invigorating  exer- 
cise which  come  from  companionship,  provoking 
rivalry  and  animating  by"  sympathetic  and 
rhythmic  movements  of  voice  or  hands  or 
feet,  prompted  and  regulated  by  music,  as  made 
familiar  in  the  systems  of  calisthenics,  gymnas- 
tics, and  athletics  of  recent  times.  Over  all 
wholesome  physical  exercise  the  law  of  recreation 
presides,  forbidding  together  with  all  violence 
and  grossness  in  quality  also  all  excess  in  con- 
tinuance. 

It  is  in  boyhood  and  youth  that  physical  edu- 
cation does  its  best  and  most  necessary  work. 
As   Horace  taught  :  the  winner  of   the   race  of 


lOO  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

life  is  he  that  endured  and  worked  ;  that  sweat 
and  shivered,  when  a  boy. 

Qui  studet  optatam  cursu  contingere  metam 
Multa  tulit  fecitque  puer  ;  sudavit  et  alsit, 

II.    MENTAL   EDUCATION. — I.   ESTHETIC. 

§  43.  The  human  mind,  which  is  essentially 
of  an  active  nature,  distributes  its  activity  into 
a  threefold  functional  form.  These  three  func- 
tions, familiarly  known  as  the  Sensibility,  the 
Intelligence,  and  the  Will  make  up  the  entire 
activity  of  the  mind.  They  each  have  their 
proper  object  in  exact  natural  correspondence 
each  to  its  respective  function.  The  beautiful  or 
the  perfect  in  form  is  the  one  sole  object  to  the 
sensibility ;  the  true  to  the  intelligence ;  the 
good,  in  the  broad  sense  as  the  perfect  in  char- 
acter and  condition,  is  the  legitimate  object  of 
the  will,  j  In  other  words,  the  Sensibility,  the 
Intelligence,  and  the  Will  constitute  the  three- 
fold functional  or  subjective  divisions  of  mental 
phenomena,  while  the  beautiful,  the  true,  and  the 
good  make  up  the  corresponding  threefold  objec- 
tive classification  of  those  phenomena.  We  have 
thus  g-iven  us  this  fundamental  law  of  mental 
education  that  the  beautiful,  embracing  under  this 
broad  designation  the  perfect  in  form,  the  imper- 
fect in  form,  and  the  positively  ugly,  be  the  one 
object  to  which  the  mind  in  its  function  of  sensi- 
bility is  to  address  itself ;    that   the  true,  embrac- 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— I.  /ESTHETIC.        lOI 

ing  the  absolutely  true,  the  imperfectly  true,  and 
the  positively  false,  be  the  one  object  to  which 
the  intelligence  is  to  address  its  activity ;  and, 
lastly,  that  the  good,  in  the  broad  sense  of  the 
term,  including  the  perfectly  good,  the  imperfect 
in  character  or  condition  and  the  positively  bad, 
be  the  one  object  to  which  the  will  is  to  address 
itself.  ThQ  beautiful,  the  true,  and  the  good  are 
accordingly  the  food  and  means  of  training  for 
the  respective  mental  functions. 

Moreover,  any  object  with  which  the  mind  may 
engage  itself  or  of  which  it  can  have  any  idea, 
may  engage  either  function,  not  however  in  equal 
degree  or  like  facility  in  all  cases.  Any  object 
may  thus  be  regarded  as  true  or  beautiful  or  good 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  mind  itself  or  under  the 
lead  of  a  teacher.  In  truth  every  object  thus  in- 
teracting with  the  mind  must  engage  the  mind  as 
a  unit  ever  bearing  along  with  it  in  every  form 
of  its  activity,  each  of  its  threefold  functions, 
while  any  one  may  more  prominently  and,  as  we 
in  inexact  but  approximating  phrase  say,  exclu- 
sively, command  its  attention.  Consequently 
the  education  of  one  function  necessarily  aiTects 
the  others  ;  and  thus  taste,  knowledge,  conduct, 
rriust  in  every  form  and  kind  of  teaching  all 
engage  the  notice  and  care  of  the  teacher.  We 
encounter  here  a  seeming  contradiction  between 
two  maxims,  each  of  prime  importance  to  the 
educator;  the  first  bidding  him  to  "keep  all  his 
eyes  about  him,"  to  note  everything  ;    the  other 


102  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

to  "do  one  thing  at  a  time," — concentrate  the 
attention  on  a  single  point.  Both  are  as  practi- 
cable as  are  most  maxims,  and  no  more  so.  The 
vigilant  seaman  sweeps  with  his  eye  the  entire 
surface  of  the  sea  to  the  limits  of  his  horizon, 
not  a  visible  thing  moving  or  resting  escaping 
his  vision,  while  yet  he  watches  with  the  closest 
attention  every  movement  of  a  vessel  of  suspi- 
cious character.  It  is  as  true  of  the  eye  of  the 
mind  as  of  the  eye  of  the  body  that  a  penumbra 
surrounds  every  object  however  carefully  circum- 
scribed. This  very  penumbra  from  extraneous 
objects  is  indeed  practically,  often  if  not  always, 
a  help  and  support  and  relief  in  long  concen- 
trated attention, 

§  44.  The  aesthetic  nature,  as  understood  in 
the  accurate  scientific  use  of  the  phrase,  includ- 
ing both  the  sensibility  and  the  imagination 
which  are  respectively  the  active  and  passive 
sides  of  this  function,  presents  a  very  broad  and 
a  most  important  field  for  educational  work. 
The  function  is  properly  designated  as  the  func- 
tion of  form.  It  is  that  attribute  of  mind  by 
which  it  communicates  with  other  minds;  by 
which  also  it  communes  with  itself,  reveals  itself 
to  itself,  and  is  the  primal  condition  of  conscious- 
ness, of  all  self-sense,  all  self-knowledge,  all  self- 
direction.  It  is  an  inseparable  element  of  mental 
life.  Every  specific  affection  and  act  of  the  mind 
takes  on  a  form,  a  character ,  the  mind  as  a 
whole    has   thus   a   form    abiding    under   an    un- 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— I.  MSTHETIC.        103 

ceasing  change,  still  with  more  or  less  con- 
stancy. 

An  analysis  of  form — aesthetic  form  in  its  broad 
scientific  sense — gives  us  at  once  three  elements 
or  constituents  : — first,  an  idea  to  be  revealed  or 
communicated  ;  secondly,  a  matter  in  which  and 
by  which  it  is  limited  or  formed  ;  and,  thirdly, 
an  embodying  act  putting  this  idea  into  this 
forming  or  limiting  matter.  All  the  laws  both  of 
the  reception  and  interpretation  and  also  of  the 
communication  and  production  of  beauty  or  the 
perfect  in  form,  ground  themselves  on  this  analy. 
sis.  The  one  comprehensive  principle  or  law  of 
this  function  of  form  so  far  as  the  active  side 
or  the  production  of  form — the  expression  or 
communication  of  idea — is  that  \.\\q  Jitting  idea 
be  fittingly  embodied  in  the  Jitting  inattcr.  The 
diversities  and  gradations  of  special  forms  are 
thus  determined  by  the  diversity  and  character 
(i)  of  the  special  ideas  expressed  ;  (2)  the  matter 
in  which  they  are  expressed  ;  and  (3)  the  expres- 
sing act,  from  the  perfect  in  form — perfect  beauty 
— down  through  the  imperfect  to  the  ugly. 

§  45.  Esthetic  education  has  for  its  special 
charge  the  nurture  and  development  of  this 
function  of  form  in  both  its  passive  and  active 
sides — the  Sensibility  and  the  Imagination.  The 
leading  characteristics  of  the  passive  side,  the 
reception  of  form — have  been  already  given. 
§  29.  They  are  these  :  i.  Ready  sympathy — a 
hearty  and  wakeful  interest  or  spirit   of  commu- 


104  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

nication — with  all  surrounding  objects  offering 
interaction  with  the  mind.  The  selection  of  the 
most  fitting  objects,  the  protection  against  op- 
posing forces,  and  the  enlistment  of  helpful  forces, 
and  the  like  are  involved  here  both  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  and  also  of  the  pupil,  who  is  to  be 
trained  to  a  right  and  ready  habitual  use  of  these 
subsidiary  operations.  2.  An  exact  and  full 
apprehension  of  the  interacting  object.  For  this 
there  must  be  allowance  of  time  in  order  that  the 
impression  of  the  object  may  be  completely 
effected  in  all  its  essential  outlines  and  colorings. 
All  needful  correction  of  impeded  or  diverted 
communication  is  also  required.  3.  A  thorough 
assimilation  of  the  impression  thus  made  is  to 
finish  out  the  process  of  a  right  reception  of 
object. 

Here  is  to  be  found  a  fundamental,  if  some- 
what difficult  work  for  the  educator.  It  is  how- 
ever to  be  performed  mostly  in  an  incidental  way 
when  other  ends  of  education,  as  those  of  knowl- 
edge or  of  practical  skill,  are  predominant  and 
guiding.  The  educator  may  thus  enforce  atten- 
tion to  what  is  said  or  shown  to  his  pupil,  holding 
him  responsible  for  what  his  senses  of  hear- 
ing and  of  sight  have  done,  with  the  requisite 
alertness  and  sympathetic  interest  and  patience, 
so  as  to  fulfill  all  the  conditions  of  a  full  assimila- 
tion of  the  impression  into  the  mental  life. 

§  46.  After  the  assimilation  there  follows  ac- 
cording  to    the  analysis  before  given,    §  29,  the 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— I.  AESTHETIC.       105 

stage  of  mental  experience  in  which  the  passive 
or  receptive  element  disappears  and  the  active 
nature  begins  to  discover  itself.  The  mental 
food  is  assimilated  ;  the  mind  is  correspondingly 
afTected  by  it ;  it  is  shaped  and  colored,- — is  so 
far  formed  by  it.  Its  active  being  is  different 
from  what  it  was  and  must  ever  remain  so.  Its 
form  is  changed  and,  subject  to  new  modifica- 
tions of  this  form,  there  is  an  abiding  character 
of  the  mind  resulting  from  the  impression,  the 
apprehension,  and  the  assimilation.  Here  we 
find  the  retentive  attribute  of  mind.  The  mind 
from  every  impression,  from  every  act  and  affec- 
tion, receives  what  it  in  some  way  and  degree 
retains  as  a  present,  living  part  of  its  own  active 
being. 

The  power  to  retain  is  the  condition  of  all 
mental  growth.  Its  place  and  relation  in  this 
growth  we  have  now  fully  determined.  It  de- 
pends on  the  assimilation  of  the  food  communi- 
cated and  apprehended.  But  it  is  not  the  orig- 
inal impression,  much  less  the  impressing  object, 
in  its  identical  substance  or  form,  which  is  re- 
tained. The  body  under  the  digestive  process 
does  not  retain  the  original  wheaten  grits  or 
the  muscular  chops  in  their  identical  substance 
and  form  after  the  digestive  work — the  insaliva- 
tion  of  the  one  and  the  gastric  decomposition  of 
the  other — has  done  or  has  even  begun  its  work. 
No  food  enters  the  proper  life  of  body  or  mind 
unless  digested  or  assimilated  ;  and    no  digested 


Io6  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

or  assimilated  food  is  identical  in  substance  or 
form  with  its  original  self.  Its  substance  has  taken 
in  something  from  that  of  the  body  or  mind  ; 
and  its  form  has  ceased  to  be  food  form  ;  it  is 
now  living  bodily  or  mental  form.  All  that  re- 
mains of  it  at  last  is  in  the  body  or  mind  so  far 
as  formed  by  it.  The  education — the  develop- 
ment and  training  of  this  important  element  of 
mental  health  and  vigor — is  a  very  practicable 
matter.  It  may  be  effected  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent by  specific  exercises;  but  chiefly  it  •will 
be  effected  in  incidental  ways,  as  will  be 
seen  hereafter.  It  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  the  entire  mental  experience,  every 
act  and  every  affection,  every  feeling,  thought, 
and  purpose,  come  within  the  scope  of  this 
retentive  function.  We  remember  our  feelings 
and  our  determinations  as  well  as  our  thoughts. 
The  general  laws  of  retentiveness  are  the  same 
for  all  those  forms  of  mental  experience.  The 
principle  underlying  all  specific  rules  is  this  : 
every  act  and  affection  of  tlic  mind  abides  in  some 
form  and  degree.  The  first  of  these  specific  rules 
prescribes  a  judicious  selection  as  to  the  objects 
which  shall  be  allowed  to  impress  the  mind  and 
the  allowance  of  only  true  thoughts,  "worthy  feel- 
ings, and  right  purposes,  in  regard  to  these  objects. 
A  second  rule,  which  aims  to  preserve  the  origi- 
nal impression  in  exactest  form,  requires  that  the 
impression  be  as  full  and  distinct  as  possible ; 
that  it  be  incorporated  at  the  time   into  the  live- 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— I.  yESTIlETlC.        lOj 

liest  activity  of  the   mind  ;    and  tliat  the  impres- 
sion be  strengthened  by  repetition. 

§  47.  The  next  stage  in  the  imaginative  process 
according  to  our  analysis  is  the  reproductive 
stage.  The  retained  experience,  whether  feeling, 
thought,  or  purpose,  is  revived.  It  is  familiarly 
but  vaguely  known  as  recollection  : — it  is  memory 
not  merely  as  retentive  but  as  reproductive.  This 
reproduction  is  of  course  more  or  less  different 
from  the  original  act  or  affection  ; — the  original 
experience  reappears  in  a  form  more  or  less  modi- 
fied. It  may  be  characterized  as  spontaneous, 
under  only  a  permissive  interference  of  the  will  ; 
or  it  may  be  voluntary,  being  positively  evoked 
and  directed  by  the  will. 

The  development  and  training  of  this  repro- 
ductive function  of  the  mind — the  memory — have 
received  a  very  large  share  of  the  consideration 
of  educators  and  philosophers,  as  well  as  of  spe- 
cial teachers.  We  have  manifold  systems  of 
mnemonics,  arts  of  memory,  laws  of  association. 
Doubtless  from  them  more  or  less  practical  bene- 
fit has  been  derived ;  and  they  are  entitled  to 
their  full  commendation.  Even  charlatanry  has 
its  merit  :  else  it  could  not  live.  But  the  simple 
and  plain  exposition  of  the  mental  phenomenon 
called  "  memory,"  appears  in  the  analysis  we 
have  given.  The  training  of  this  function  pos- 
sesses in  it  a  true  scientific  guidance.  The  con- 
ditions of  a  good  memory  are  obvious.  Vivid 
impression,  accurate  apprehension  and  assimilation, 


I08  EDUCATIONAL   IVORk'. 

and  Ji9v/i  retention  are  essentKxl  conditions.  Con- 
tinued definite  practice  under  those  conditions  in 
modes  and  ways  judiciously  selected,  is  the  effi- 
cient factor  in  the  culture  of  the  reproductive 
memory  whether  as  spontaneous  or  voluntary. 

§  48.  The  next  following  stage  in  the  imagi- 
native process  combines  with  the  original  experi- 
ence as  reproduced  associated  mental  acts  and 
affections.  We  seek  thus  in  recollecting  to  re- 
vive some  particular  act  or  feeling  by  recalling 
the  scene,  the  occasion,  the  outer  surroundings 
and  the  inner  associations.  We  cannot  remem- 
ber at  all  without  something  of  this  modification 
of  the  original  impression.  But  the  modification 
may  go  so  far  as  to  give  a  distinct  character  to 
the  memory.  This  power  to  reproduce  freely 
and  fully  the  past  with  the  associations  as  deter- 
mined by  the  condition  or  purpose  at  the  time  is 
an  attainment,  demanding  the  careful  attention 
of  the  educator.  But  the  principles  of  training 
are  now  obvious;  the  modes  of  training  will  pre- 
sent themselves  in  connection  with  the  other 
modes  of  training  the  function  of  form. 

§  49.  The  last  and  highest  stage  of  the  imag- 
inative process  is  the  properly  creative  stage.  At 
this  stage  the  reproductive  movement  has  sunk 
the  original  impression  so  far  below  the  associated 
experience,  has  so  absorbed  the  past  element 
into  the  present,  that  we  have  what  may  allow- 
ably be  termed  a  creation.  But  the  creation  is  a 
new  formi  only.     The  imagination  in  itself  is  con- 


MENTA  L  ED  UCA 1  'ION  :—I.  ^ES 1  'HE  TIC. 


109 


cerned  with  form  and  with  form  alone.  In  it 
the  mind  takes  from  itself  as  a  body  of  faculties 
and  mental  riches  and  from  those  it  puts  itself 
forth  in  some  new  mode  or  form.  The  function 
has  a  wide  scope  and  is  a  vital  element  in  char- 
acter, in  power  of  achievement  in  all  the  depart- 
ments of  human  life — in  study  and  intellectual 
culture  and  in  conduct  as  well  as  in  proper  art. 

The  three  constituents  of  all  aesthetic  form 
have  been  already  enumerated  ;  idea  to  be  ex- 
pressed; matter  in  which  it  is  to  be  expressed  ; 
and  the  expressing  act  or  the  embodying  of  the 
idea  in  the  matter.  The  training  must  accord- 
ingly be  along  these  lines.  The  specific  ways  or 
modes  will  be  best  indicated  in  a  general  sum- 
mary of  the  modes  of  educating  the  aesthetic 
function  of  the  human  mind.  The  success  of  the 
educator  will  depend  on  his  care  to  systematize 
all  his  work  in  this  field  of  training,  keeping  his 
work  ever  in  mind,  pursuing  it  steadily,  making 
every  occasion  tributary  to  a  true  growth,  carry- 
ing forward  in  short  a  constant  development 
towards  an  ideal  of  aesthetic  excellence  both  on 
the  receptive  and  on  the  productive  side. 

§  50.  I.  Esthetic  education  finds  a  common 
and  ready  occasion  in  the  regulation  of  the  per- 
sonal appearance  and  carriage.  "  Good  form  " 
here,  in  the  larger  and  better  import  of  the 
phrase,  should  ever  be  enforced,  if  for  no  other 
purpose,  simply  as  a  condition  and  means  of 
aesthetic  training.     Neatness  in  person  and  dress ; 


no  EDUCATIONAL    IVOKK. 

decency  in  attitude  and  posture,  courtesy  in 
manners,  straightforwardness  and  freedom  in 
movement  of  limb,  are  the  leading  parts  of 
aesthetic  training  here.  A  principle  ever  and 
everywhere  to  be  exemplified  and  enforced  of 
fullest  applicability  here  is  :  "  Let  all  things  be 
done  decently  and  in  order.'* 

II.  Other  abundant  occasions  for  training  in 
this  field  are  furnished  in  the  exercise  of  ilic 
senses.  All  form  is  communicative  in  its  essential 
nature— receiving  and  imparting  ,  and  the  senses 
are  a  principal  medium  for  this  communicating 
work.  Eyes  that  shall  be  open  and  quick  to  ob- 
serve, ears  ready  to  catch  all  sounds  in  their 
diverse  character  and  significance,  touch  sensitive 
and  heedful,  are  largely  susceptible  of  training. 
The  home,  the  walk,  the  journey,  the  class  room, 
the  school,  abound  with  occasions  for  educational 
work  here,  both  in  positively  developing  capa- 
bility, and  also  in  repressing  listlessness,  indiffer- 
ence, aversion.  Then  on  the  active  side  all 
expression  should  be  in  fitting  look  and  voice,  in 
attitude  and  gesture.  In  all  speech,  in  interro- 
gating and  in  answering,  as  in  all  written  expres- 
sions of  idea,  the  aesthetic  sense — a  quick  and 
accurate  taste — and  also  the  aesthetic  faculty — a 
vivid,  sympathetic,  affective  imagination — may 
receive  culture. 

§51.  III.  The  reproductive  function,  proper 
memory,  invites  and  demands  a  very  prominent 
part  in  all  systematic  education.     The  opportuni- 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— I.  AESTHETIC        1  1  i 

ties  of  training  are  given  in  manifold  ways.  In- 
cidentally while  other  specific  ends  are  sought, 
the  memory  may  receive  attention,  as  particularly 
in  the  preparation  of  lessons,  in  which  accuracy 
and  thoroughness  in  acquiring  should  be  com- 
bined with  a  sense  of  responsibility  for  the  char- 
acter of  the  acquisition,  A  pervasive  principle  of 
education  has  here  an  important  special  applica- 
tion : — that  every  particular  study  and  exercise  be 
regarded  as  entering  into  and  determining  all  suc- 
ceeding proficiency — nothing  now  but  what  will 
reappear  consciously  or  unconsciously  hereafter. 
The  faculty  of  reproductive  memory  is  incident- 
ally exercised  also  in  the  "  recitation  "  and  exam- 
ination upon  the  lesson.  Reviewing  comes  in 
here  as  a  most  effective  means  of  developing 
memory.  Frequent  and  systematic  rehearsals  of 
discourse  in  prose  and  more  beneficially  perhaps 
in  poetry,  proper  declamations,  are  familiar  helps 
to  memory.  We  have  here  indeed  a  function 
that  admits  of  a  well-nigh  indefinite  degree  of 
development.  A  good  strong  memory  is  the  fruit 
of  training — of  determined,  earnest,  continuous, 
judicious  training. 

IV.  Once  more,  a  thorough  education  must 
seek  to  develop  and  train  a  proper  creative  imag- 
ination. The  active  function  of  form  takes  on 
this  character  when  it  gives  forth  a  new,  original 
idea  of  any  kind,  or  puts  it  into  a  new  body  of 
matter — whether  it  be  physical,  as  figure  and 
color,  or  in  wood   or  stone  or  soil,  or   in   sound, 


112  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

and  the  like,  as  in  the  plastic  arts,  in  architecture, 
landscape,  music  ;  or  in  spiritual  matter  as  in  the 
poetic  art ;  or  still  farther  evinces  a  way  of  em- 
bodying that  is  more  or  less  new  and  original,  in 
respect  of  grace  or  fitness,  or  of  vigor. 

II.      INTELLECTUAL   EDUCATION. 

§51.  The  development  of  the  Intellect  in 
man  follows  naturally  that  of  the  Function  of 
Form  or  the  Sensibility  and  the  Imagination. 
The  intellect  waits,  for  the  most  part  at  least, 
on  the  aesthetic  function  for  the  object  on  which 
its  activity  is  to  be  exerted.  The  impressed 
objects  of  the  sense  and  the  ideas  reproduced  in 
the  memory  or  re-formed  in  the  imagination 
awaken  the  intelligence  or  cognitive  function  at 
the  first  and  so  condition  and  shape  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  the  entire  intellectual  process  that 
follows.  Leaving  out  of  view  the  intellectual 
processes  that  are  founded  on  other  preceding 
intellectual  products,  there  is  but  one  exception 
to  the  general  statement  that  the  intelligence 
ever  follows  a  presentation  by  the  function  of 
Form,  depending  upon  it  and  being  conditioned 
by  it.  In  the  interaction  between  any  exterior 
object  and  the  mental  activity,  as  the  mind  is 
in  any  exercise  of  any  particular  function  ever 
present  in  its  entirety  of  functions,  nothing 
forbids  the  notion  that  the  intellectual  function 
may  in  some  cases  immediately  interact  with  the 


MENTAL  EDUCATJON:—II.  INTELLECTUAL.    I  13 

object  without  any  intervention  of  the  sense. 
In  such  case  we  may  have  an  immediate  percep- 
tion of  the  exterior  object — may  become  cog- 
nizant of  it, — not,  however,  properly  conscious 
of  it,  for  this  involves  a  contradiction  of  terms. 
But  in  the  general  the  sense  or  the  memory  or 
the  imagination,  some  mode  of  the  function  of 
form,  gives  to  the  intelligence  its  datum.  It  is 
•  the  sense  receiving  the  object  that  first  thus 
awakens  the  intelligence,  which  cannot  act  or 
reveal  itself  except  on  condition  of  some  object 
being  presented  to  it. 

§  52.  The  analysis  of  any  intellectual  act 
gives  at  once  as  the  two  essential  factors  i,  the 
knowing-  subject ;  2,  the  object  known,  that  is,  the 
true  in  the  object.  The  two  factors,  as  before 
indicated,  are  in  exact  correspondence.  Farther, 
it  is  immediately  discernible  that  all  knowing  is 
a  process  in  time,  which  admits  of  being  distin- 
guished into  two  stages,  the  one  inchoative  and 
incomplete,  familiarly  designated  perception  ;  the 
other  the  matured  and  complete,  technically 
termed  thought  ox  proper  knoivledge.  Perception 
ever  tends  to  pass  on  to  a  mature  knowledge  or 
thought ;  it  may,  however,  be  arrested,  as  the 
tree-life  tends  to  spray  and  leaf  and  fruit,  but 
may  be  arrested  in  its  work  ere  it  reach  its  natur- 
ally destined  end.  Perception  more  passively 
apprehends  the  object  as  a  concrete.  Thought 
actively  affirms  it  to  be  such  or  so,  in  other  words 
to  have  or  not  to  have  such  or  such  attributes. 
8 


114  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

The  culture  of  this  function,  the  supplying  of 
food  to  it  and  training  it  to  acquire  and  to  com- 
municate knowledge  or  truth,  has  constituted 
the  chief,  often  the  exclusive,  claim  to  the  care  of 
the  educator.  To  educate  has  generally  been 
deemed  to  be  simply  to  furnish  and  train  the 
intelligence  or  function  of  knowledge.  How- 
ever crude  and  faulty  this  notion  may  be  held  to 
be,  nothing  can  be  more  unquestionable  than 
that  a  prime  qualification  in  the  educator  is  a 
correct  understanding  of  the  essential  nature  of 
this  function  and  its  relationships  as  well  as  of 
its  generic  forms  and  laws.  Ignorance  here 
would  seem  the  very  quintessence  of  quackery. 
A  summary  mention,  at  least,  of  the  leading 
facts  of  the  intelligence  is  requisite  in  order  to  a 
right  conception  of  the  work  of  education  in 
dealing  with  it. 

If  I  should  present  to  any  class  of  pupils  of 
ordinary  intelligence  in  our  schools  a  rose  and 
should  put  to  them  the  question  :  What  do  you 
perceive,  the  reply  would  be  prompt  and  univer- 
sal. The  unhesitating  answer  would  show  that 
everybody  knows  what  perception  is.  If  I 
should  go  on  to  ask :  What  do  you  tJiink  of  it  ? 
The  reply  might  be  prompt,  but  not  probably  so 
harmonious.  One  would  say :  I  think  it  is 
beautiful  ;  another,  I  think  it  is  red ;  a  third,  it 
is  sweet ;  a  fourth,  it  has  five  petals,  etc.  The 
answers  however  all  alike  evince  that  they  know 
what  to  think  is.     The  answers  show  that  while 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— IL  INTELLECTUAL.    I15 

the  object  remains  the  same,  the  mind,  the  intel- 
ligence, has  passed  from  one  stage  to  another ; 
that  the  one  stage — perception — is  primary  and 
conditional :  that  the  other  stage — thinking — is 
natural  and  sure  to  follow  if  opportunity  be  given. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  latter  stage  differs  from 
the  former  in  this  one  particular :  an  attribute, 
as  "beautiful,"  "red,"  "sweet,"  "five  petaled," 
has  been  af^rmed  of  the  object  ;  the  rose  is  in 
one  respect  "  beautiful,"  in  another  "  red,"  and  so 
on ;  in  other  words  the  rose  is  identified.,  in  the  act 
ivhich  is  knozvn  as  tJiinking,  zvith  an  attribute  or 
property.  Such  is  the  simple  nature  of  thought 
as  technically  distinguished  from  perception.  It 
is  true  that  there  was  in  every  case  of  reply  a 
selection  of  one  attribute  out  of  many — a  dis- 
crimination. But  if  only  one  attribute  were 
apprehended,  there  would  of  course  be  no  dis- 
crimination, so  that  this  movement  of  the  mind 
is  not  essential,  but  only  incidental  and  subsid- 
iary to  thought.  Further,  this  is  all  that  enters 
into  the  nature  of  thought  as  a  completed  act  of 
knowledge — to  ascribe  or  to  deny  an  attribute  to 
the  object.  Thought  thus  is  simply  attribution. 
It  ever  takes  the  form  of  what  is  known  techni- 
cally as  the  judgment,  which  is  properly  defined 
as  "knowledge  under  an  attribute." 

In  this  transition  from  the  initial  and  simply 
inchoative  to  the  final  and  completed  stage  of 
knowledge  a  noticeable  transformation  has  taken 
place  ;  the  simplicity  of  the  perception  has  passed 


Il6  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

into  the  triplicity  of  the  thought  or  judgment — 
one  has  become  three.  We  have'  at  the  end  (i) 
that  of  which  we  think, — a  subject ;  (2)  that 
which  we  think  of  it — an  attribute  ;  and  (3)  the 
thinking  act  itself,  the  afifirmation  or  denial — the 
attribution — in  the  technical  copula.  The  two 
first  named  constituents  of  the  thought — the 
so-called  terms — are  known  as  concepts.  They 
imply  each  the  other ;  neither  can  possibly  be 
without  the  other.  They  come  into  existence 
together  simultaneously  with  the  judgment,  as 
its  organic  constituents,  just  as  head  and  limbs 
begin  their  life  simultaneously  with  the  bodily 
life.  It  is  a  profound  mistake  to  think  of  a  con- 
cept as  existing  before  the  judgment  or  mature 
act  of  knowledge ;  and  equally  a'  mistake  to 
identify  a  perception  or  percept  with  a  concept 
except  simply  as  being  related  to  the  same 
object. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  call  distinct  attention 
here  to  the  ambiguities  of  language  in  respect  to 
the  use  and  significance  of  the  terms  employed 
to  denote  mental  phenomena,  and  to  the  conse- 
quent liability  to  misconception  and  error  in  rea- 
soning. The  word  rose  thus  may  be  used  to 
mean  divers  things.  It  may  mean  simply  a  word, 
and  either  a  spoken  word  or  a  written  word  ;  it 
may  mean  the  external  object  itself ;  or  the  per- 
ception of  it — a  proper  percept ;  or  a  thought  of 
it  as  having  some  attribute — a  concept.  Now  it 
is   very  obvious  that    these  different  things,  all 


MENTAL  EDUCATION :~JI.  INTELLECTUAL.    I  I  7 

denoted  by  the  same  word — rose — have  different 
attributes,  and  that  to  ascribe  to  one  of  these  ob- 
jects the  attribute  proper  to  another,  as  to  say  that 
"  the  word  rose  is  fragrant  "  is  to  ascribe  falsely, 
to  fall  into  error.  Just  so,  as  denoting  a  percept 
it  allows  certain  attributes  which  do  not  pertain 
to  it  when  denoting  a  concept.  In  other  words 
the  percept  rose  has  attributes  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  concept  rose ;  and  to  confound 
them  leads  to  error.  It  is  true  that  ordinarily 
the  general  intention  in  the  use  of  the  term  and 
the  connections  will  suffice  to  prevent  this  confu- 
sion and  error.  But  in  proper  psychological  dis- 
cussion and  consequently  in  intellectual  training 
the  clear  discrimination  becomes  of  commanding 
importance.  A  proper  percept  never  of  itself 
recognizes  the  distinction  of  subject  and  attri- 
bute ;  a  proper  concept  always  from  its  very 
essence  implies  this  distinction. 

§  53.  There  are  three  comprehensive  move- 
ments of  the  intelligence  in  its  treatment  of  judg- 
ments or  the  matured  forms  of  knowledge  which 
educational  work  should  have  under  practical  con- 
trol. They  are,  first,  the  enlargement — or  so- 
called  amplification  of  the  concept — which  may 
respect  the  subject  concept  and  thus  appearing  in 
the  familiar  and  important  process  of  gejicraliza- 
tion,  or  the  attribute  concept,  as  in  the  process  of 
the  technical  determination.  The  principle  vali- 
dating the  process  is  that  either  concept  may  be 
amplified   if  ever  the  vital   organic   relation   be- 


Il8  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

tween  them  be  observed — we  can  generalize  only 
where  we  have  the  same  attribute ;  we  can  deter- 
mine only  where  we  have  the  same  subject.  In 
other  words,  in  amplifying  either  one  of  two  con- 
genital concepts  the  other  must  be  the  base  or 
governing  principle. 

Farther,  the  intelligence  may  deduce  a  con- 
tained truth  or  judgment  from  another  which 
contains  it.  This  is  the  familiar  deductive  move- 
ment of  thought. 

Thirdly,  the  intelligence  may  infer — induce — 
one  part  from  another  part  of  the  same  whole. 
This  is  the  familiar  inductive  movement  of 
thought.  It  is  exemplified  abundantly  in  common 
life  as  when  the  child  shuns  a  flame  after  having 
once  felt  its  burning  heat,  and  most  conspicuously 
in  science,  as  when  the  geologist  on  finding  a  fossil 
bone  at  once  induces  from  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
part  of  some  organic  whole  that  there  must  have 
been  other  parts  or  organs  belonging  to  the  same 
whole,  and  so  proceeding  from  part  to  part  and 
putting  together  the  results  he  comes  to  know 
that  a  mastodon  had  once  lived  and  died  and  left 
a  part  of  itself  in  that  locality.  The  deductive 
and  the  inductive  processes  are  true  complement- 
aries,  as  evidently  there  can  be  in  the  generic 
relation  of  quantity  only  the  two  movements, 
that  between  the  whole  and  the  parts  and  that 
between  one  part  and  another  part. 

The  work  of  education  has  thus  set  before  it 
the  precise  nature  of  the  mental  activity  known 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— n.  INTELLECTUAL.    I  I9 

as  the  intelligence  and  all  its  generic  forms.     It 
has  accordingly  two  stages  in   knowledge — first, 
the  inchoative  act,  perception  or  the  simple  appre- 
hension   of    the   object ;    and  then,  the    matured 
stage,  the  judgment  or  the  attributive  act  which 
after  the  needful  discrimination  simply  identifies 
the  attribute  thus  discriminated  with  the  object 
or  differences   the   attribute  from    it — affirms   or 
denies  the  attribute  as  belonging  to  the  object. 
The  possible  derivative  processes  from  the  judg- 
ment are  the  three  ;  (i).  Amplification  of  the  con- 
cept— whether     subject     or     attribute — whether 
generalization  or  determination  ;   (2),  Deduction, 
or  the  movement  of  thought  between  the  whole 
and  the  parts;  and  (3),  Induction,  or  the  move- 
ment of  thought  from  one  part  to  another  part  of 
the  same  whole.     It  is  the  province  of  Logic  to 
expound  the  laws  and  forms  of  thought.     Every- 
body thinks  and  thinks  serviceably  in  a  degree  to 
his  wants  although  he  knows  little  or  nothing  of 
what   thought  is   or  what   are   its   laws   or  forms, 
just  as  everybody  eats,  and  eats  serviceably  in  a 
degree   to  his  health,  although   not  one  in  ten 
thousand   knows  what    digestion  or    distribution 
or  assimilation  of  food  is.     But  the  thinker  should 
understand  thoroughly  and  familiarly  the  nature 
and   forms  of  thought ;   and  the  teacher  should 
understand  what  kind  of  an  activity  he  professes 
to  train.     A  very  conspicuous  importance  of  this 
logical  knowledge  consists  in  this  :  that  it  enables 
one  to  knoiv  that  he  knows  ivliat  he  kiiozvs ;  that 


120  EDUCATIONAL   WORK'. 

study  and  scientific  investigation,  consciously  fol- 
lowing the  laws  and  legitimate  forms  of  thought, 
is  on  the  road  to  certitude  of  knowledge  ;  that 
every  step  he  takes  leads  to  assured  success. 
The  inspiration  that  comes  from  this  confidence 
is  beyond  estimation  in  all  intellectual  pursuits ; 
and  logic,  when  it  is  rescued  from  the  littlenesses 
and  trivialities  and  the  barbarous  formulisms  of 
scholastic  teaching,  and  appears  in  full  form  and 
exact  method  as  an  unfolding  of  the  simple 
nature  of  thought  into  its  laws  and  forms  with 
their  organic  relationships  in  their  completest 
fullness  and  totality,  while  the  exactest  of  sci- 
ences, is  also  the  simplest  and  most  comprehen- 
sible. How  can  the  effective  training  of  the 
intelligence  proceed  in  ignorance  of  the  laws  and 
general  forms  of  the  intelligence? 

All  educational  work  consisting  of  the  two 
parts,  nurture  and  exercise,  the  development  and 
training  of  the  intelligence,  consists  of  the  sup- 
plying of  food — which  to  the  intellect  is  ever 
the  true — and  the  prescription  of  practice.  In- 
tellectual growth  comprises  increase  of  knowledge 
and  increase  of  strength  and  skill.  But  food  is  of 
value,  chiefly  at  least,  for  the  sustaining  and  pro- 
moting of  health  and  vigor.  Mere  accumulation 
of  knowledge  is  of  little  worth  ;  it  may  be  a  cum- 
brance  and  a  hindrance.  We  acquire  truth  for 
use — for  means  and  help  to  the  advance  of  intel- 
lectual strength  and  efficiency.  Moreover,  the 
food  of  the  intelligence  is  the  object  for  its  activ- 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— II.  INTELLECTUAL.    \2\ 

ity.  It  is  wise  therefore  to  direct  educational 
work  mainly  in  the  line  of  exercise.  He  who  has 
the  power  to  know  has  the  key  of  knowledge; 
and  it  is  better  to  be  able  at  will  to  unlock  the 
treasury  of  all  knowledge  than  merely  to  have 
one's  scanty  purse  stuffed  even  to  fullness. 

§  55.  I.  Culture  of  the  Perceptive  Faculty. — 
Perception  we  have  recognized  as  the  funda. 
mental  and  conditional  step  in  the  intellectual  life. 
But  external  perception,  exercised  upon  exterior, 
physical  objects  is  mainly,  if  not  wholly  through 
the  bodily  sense.  It  is  in  fact,  with  the  exception 
before  maintained,  §  51,  the  immediate  reaction 
of  the  intellect  upon  the  sensation;  and  follows 
instinctively  upon  it.  A  true  and  full  perception, 
thus  presupposes  a  true  and  full  sensation,  which 
involves,  as  we  have  seen,  a  sympathetic,  appre- 
hensive, and  assimilative  process  that  is  accurate, 
vivid,  thorough.  Internal  perception,  technically 
known  as  intuition,  which  is  exercised  on  the 
acts  and  affections  of  the  mind  itself,  involves  the 
same  qualities  as  external  perception  except  so  far 
as  regards  the  object.  It  belongs  properly  to  an 
advanced  stage  of  intellectual  growth ;  but  even 
the  child  may  be  led  to  observe  his  feelings,  his 
thoughts,  his  intentions.  Moreover,  this  funda- 
mental function  is  called  forth  all  along  in  the  line 
of  the  proper  culture  of  other  intellectual  powers. 
Its  culture  may  be  best  carried  forth  conse- 
quently in  connection  with  the  practice  of  those 
other    dependent    functions.      But    opportunities 


122  EDUCATIONAL   WORK'. 

for  putting  the  perceptive  or  observational  faculty 
in  exercise  and  so  of  guiding  or  training  it 
abound  everywhere.  Any  external  object,  any 
internal  experience  may  be  employed.  The 
culture  will  seek  everywhere  to  develop  a 
habit  of  quick,  interested,  accurate,  thorough  ob- 
servation. The  end  sought  will  be  such  a  habit 
of  mind  as  will  not  only  without  special  care 
prompt  such  observation,  but  will  give  one  con- 
fidence that  his  observations  are  true  and  full. 
To  be  reasonably  sure  of  having  habitually  ob- 
served aright  is  a  most  desirable'  attainment. 

§  56.  Culture  of  the  Thinking  Faculty.- — As 
before  intimated  there  may  be  recognized  in  an 
act  of  thinking  an  incipient  stage — discrimination 
of  attribute — and  a  matured  stage — the  actual 
judging.  In  all  cases  knowledge  of  an  object  is 
mediated  through  some  one  or  more  attributes. 
We  know  the  rose  only  as  it  is  presented  to  us  as 
having  form,  color,  fragrance,  and  the  like — as 
having  some  attribute.  Which  of  the  manifold 
attributes  belonging  to  an  object  shall  engage 
our  thought  may  be  determined  by  the  object 
itself  obtruding  on  our  notice  this  or  that  attri- 
bute; or  by  some  condition  or  disposition  in  our- 
selves, as  the  attention  of  a  child  might  be 
arrested  by  the  color,  or  by  the  fragrance  of  the 
rose,  while  the  student  in  botany  might  first 
notice  the  petals  or  the  stamens.  In  these  two 
cases  the  recognition  of  the  attribute  would  be 
automatic   or  spontaneous.     It   might,  however, 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— II.  INTELLECTUAL.    1 23 

be,  as  it  often  is  in  fact,  of  set  purpose  or  will ; 
the  botanist  might  purposely  bend  himself  solely 
to  the  organic  characters  or  attributes  of  the  rose, 
while  the  child  might  seize  it  for  its  fragrance. 

Skill  in  the  discrimination  of  attributes,  as 
thus  presented  to  the  thought,  is  obviously 
of  the  first  importance  to  ready  and  accurate 
thinking.  It  is  indispensable  to  the  educator's 
success  and  must  be  a  commanding  end  or 
object  to  be  secured  for  his  pupil  in  his  work, 
A  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  generic  classes 
of  attributes  thus  becomes  a  matter  of  leading 
importance,  not  to  say,  of  imperative  necessity. 
The  science  of  thought  gives  us  this  classifica- 
tion, in  comprehensive  terms: — All  attributes 
must  be  intrinsic  or  extrinsic  to  the  object  to 
which  they  belong.  Intrinsic  attributes  or  Prop- 
erties are  of  two  species  :  attributes  of  Quality, 
and  attributes  of  Action.  Those  of  Quality  are 
normally  expressed  in  the  Grammatical  Adjec- 
tive, as,  the  sun  is  bright ;  those  of  action  in  the 
Grammatical  Verb — the  Intransitive,  as,  the  sun 
shines,  which,  as  the  attribute  of  quality  does 
not,  suggests  without  designating  the  object, 
and  the  Transitive,  that  expressly  limits  the 
action  to  its  object,  as,  the  sun  ilhiviinatcs  the 
earth.  It  is  the  same  attribute  brightness  that 
is  presented  in  each  kind  but  modified  diversely 
in  each.  All  extrinsic  attributes  indicate  some 
character  of  relation  pertaining  to  the  object, 
which  of  necessity  must  be  either  a  relation  to 


124  EDUCATIONAL  WORK. 

the  whole  to  which  the  object  belongs  as  part, 
or  to  some  other  part  of  that  whole. 

The  science  of  thought  also  names  to  us  the 
few  supreme  categories  of  thought,  that  is,  the 
highest  and  most  comprehensive  classes  of  attri- 
butes that  can  be  ascribed  to  thought.  To  the 
practical  thinker  this  enumeration  will  be  found 
of  eminent  service  in  guiding  his  discrimination, 
as  it  presents  to  his  view  the  entire  field  of 
thinkable  attributes  in  thought  and  being  dis- 
tributed into  a  few  comprehensive  classes. 
There  are  three  fundamental  classes  of  these 
categories : — First,  the  categories  of  Pure 
Thought — identity,  quantity,  modality,  which 
last  includes  the  attributes  of  necessity  and 
contingency  : — 

Secondly,  the  categories  of  Pure  Being — Real- 
ity, Activity : — 

Thirdly,  the  categories  of  Thought-Being — 
Substance  and  Cause.'^     ' 

The  work  of  education  is  evidently  thus  the 
exercise  of  the  pupil  in  the  systematic,  con- 
tinuous, not  desultory  nor  incidental  even,  dis- 
crimination of  the  attributes  of  objects.  The 
work  should  of  course  continue  so  long  or  so  far 
as  to  effect  a  practical  mastery  of  the  work  to  be 
done.  Not  a  large  number  of  objects  nor  a 
large  number  of  exercises  is  necessary,  just  as 
the  student  of  botany  need  not  examine  all  the 

*  Day's  "  Mental  Science,"  §  193. 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— II.  INTELLECTUAL.    125 

specimens  of  a  given  flower  in  a  field,  to  be  able 
to  identify  it^ — to  know  it  wherever  he  meets 
with  it.  The  beginning  would  naturally  be  with 
objects  of  sense  ;  as  first  with  those  that  address 
the  sight,  beginning  say  with  the  color.  Objects 
with  divers  colors  being  presented,  the  pupil 
would  be  called  to  indicate  the  particular  color. 
He  might  thus  be  introduced  to  all  the  leading 
kinds  of  color.  In  the  same  way,  the  attributes 
of  figure  as  straight-lined  and  curved  in  all  their 
respective  varieties,  as  triangular,  square,  oblong, 
circular,  oval,  etc.  Then  objects  addressing  the 
ear,  with  the  leading  varieties  of  sound,  partic- 
ularly of  musical  sounds.  A  like  method  could 
be  pursued  with  objects  addressing  the  other 
senses  and  also  with  internal  or  mental  phenom- 
ena, as  the  feelings,  thoughts,  intentions. 

The  consummating  stage  in  the  thinking  proc- 
ess, as  we  have  seen,  is  that  of  alarming  or 
denying  the  attribute  as  belonging  to  the  object ; 
— of  identifying  the  attribute  with  the  object  or 
differencing  the  attribute  from  it.  The  training 
here  will  of  course  be  practicable  in  a  thoroughly 
systematic  way  only  at  an  advanced  stage  of 
education,  in  connection  with  studies  in  logical 
science.  But  even  in  the  earlier  stages  some- 
thing very  effective  may  be  accomplished.  If 
thus  the  study  of  one's  vernacular  language  is  in 
hand,  the  exercises  in  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences, which  are  but  judgments  expressed  in 
language,  will  be  exercises   in   proper  judging  or 


126  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

thinking.  Here  will  be  necessarily  involved  the 
receptive  or  acquisitive  function  with  the  repro- 
ductive. The  object  must  be  apprehended  as 
also  the  attribute  discriminated,  in  order  to  the 
completed  judgment. 

The  culture  of  the  judgment  in  its  diverse 
forms  leads  to  the  training  of  the  intelligence  in 
the  generic  derivative  processes  of  thought.  The 
first,  as  already  indicated,  is  the  amplification  of 
the  concept  with  its  twofold  form  of  generaliza- 
tion which  deals  with  the  subject  term  of  a  judg- 
ment and  of  determination  which  deals  with  the 
attribute  term.  Generalizing  or  classifying, 
gathering  into  classes,  in  a  legitimate  way  is 
urged  by  Lord  Bacon  as  a  method  of  scientific 
thought  that  had  been  to  his  time  "  untried." 
This,  scientific  generalization,  is  the  proper  new 
Baconian  method  of  science.  He  seems  to  have- 
known  little,  if  anything  beyond  the  name,  of 
Induction,  except  that,  like  generalization,  it 
begins  with  particulars.  The  one  simple  princi- 
ple ruling  over  all  legitimate  generalization  is 
this :  any  number  of  objects  having  any  one 
attribute  common  to  them  may  be  united 
in  a  class  on  the  basis  of  that  attribute  ,•  as  sun, 
stars,  planets,  are  all  conjoined,  on  the  basis  of 
the  one  attribute  of  light-giving,  under  the 
name  of  luminaries.  The  process  of  amplifying 
the  attribute  concept  is  under  an  analogous  prin- 
ciple :  any  number  of  attributes  may  be  com- 
bined   into    one    aggregate    or    comprehensive 


MENTAL  EDUCATION:— n.  lA'TELLECTUAL.     12/ 

whole  on  the  basis  of  being  all  known  to  be 
attributes  of  some  one  object. 

The  twofold  movements  of  thought  in  the 
relationship  of  Quantity  or  that  of  Whole  and 
Parts, — the  Deductive,  moving  between  the  whole 
and  the  parts,  and  the  Inductive,  moving  between 
one  part  and  another  part  of  the  same  wliole, — 
can  properly  be  taught  only  in  a  rudimentary 
and  anticipatory  way  until  the  education  reaches 
the  advanced  stage  in  which  logical  science  may 
wisely  be  studied. 

It  must  be  apparent  that  the  educator,  espe- 
cially if  he  pursues  his  work  beyond  the  rudimen- 
tary stage,  should  number  among  his  necessary 
qualifications  a  thorough  logical  training  or  a 
training  in  the  science  of  thought,  so  as  to  un- 
derstand the  nature  of  thought,  its  fundamental 
laws,  and  its  generic  forms  and  so  to  be  practi- 
cally master  of  the  leading  modifications  of 
thought.  Only  in  the  light  of  this  knowledge 
and  with  the  help  of  this  skill,  can  he  wisely  and 
successfully  train  the  intelligence  committed  to 
his  care.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  the 
great  forms  of  thought  are  more  or  less  called 
into  exercise  in  a  rudimentary  way  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  education.  To  develop  and  train  by 
prescribing  exercises,  correcting  errors,  and  the 
like,  the  faculty  of  right  thinking  must  be  before 
his  mind  from  the  beginning.  In  truth,  a 
thorough  training  in  logical  science  and  in  the 
art  of  right  thinking,  must  be  accounted  as  one 


128  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

of  the  most  indispensable  accomplishments  of  a 
liberal  education.  A  great  and  noble  science, 
the  science  of  all  sciences,  it  is  worthy  in  itself  of 
all  honor;  and  as  the  nurse  and  guide  of  all 
intelligent  and  confident  work  in  thinking  it 
is  a  prime  condition  and  helper  to  intellectual 
exertion  in  every  department  of  study  and 
rational  life.  Of  course  by  logical  science  is  here 
meant,  as  already  hinted,  the  science  of  thought 
in  its  large  comprehensive  import — the  science 
that,  first  seizing  the  essential  nature  of  thought 
or  knowledge,  unfolds  directly  from  this  its  gov- 
erning characteristics  or  laws  and  its  possible 
forms  in  their  true  genesis  and  organic  relation- 
ships. 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  1 29 


Educational    AnioRiSMS     for     Elemen- 
tary Studies. 

There  are  certain  branches  of  intellectual  train- 
ing of  such  supreme  and  universal  importance 
that  no  scheme  of  education  worthy  of  the  name 
can  fail  to  notice  them  with  special  distinction. 
They  are  Spelling,  Reading,  Writing,  Arith- 
metic, and  Grammar  as  an  art  "of  true  and  well 
speaking."  "To  read  the  English  language  well," 
says  Edward  Everett  ;  "  to  write  with  dispatch  a 
neat»  legible  hand,  and  be  master  of  the  first 
four  rules  of  arithmetic,  so  as  to  dispose  at  once, 
with  accuracy,  of  every  question  of  figures  which 
comes  up  in  practice — I  call  this  a  good  educa- 
tion. And  if  you  add  the  ability  to  write  pure, 
grammatical  English,  I  regard  it  as  an  excellent 
education." 

It  may  be  expedient,  however,  for  a  science  of 
education  to  treat  these  branches  in  a  more  pop- 
ular and  suggestive  way,  as  the  best  modes 
of  training  will  vary  greatly  in  different  com- 
munities varying  in  size,  mental  advancement, 
and  other  social  conditions.  These  suggestions 
are  here  presented  under  the  form  of  aphorisms 
in  their  application  to  the  several  studies, 
separately. 
9 


I30 


EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 


I.    Spelling. 


1.  He  who  has  learned  to  spell  well  has  laid 
the  best  foundation  for  best  proficiency  in  all 
studies. 

2.  Spelling  lessons  are  excellent  object 
lessons,  training  to  accurate  observation  and 
careful  recollection  and  also,  if  properly  arranged, 
to  inductive  and  generalizing  habits  of  thought. 

3.  Spelling  and  Reading  are  correlatives  ;  the 
former  names  separately  the  written  characters, 
the  latter  utters  the  united  spoken  elements  of 
the  word.  One  is  analytic  ;  the  other  is  synthetic. 
Each  implies  the  other  ;  and  training  which 
is  direct  in  either  one  is  at  the  same  time  real 
but  indirect  in  the  other. 

4.  The  maxim  "one  thing  at  a  time"  is  no- 
where more  imperative  than  in  this  first  and  fun- 
damental study.  Distracted  attention  is  a  hin- 
drance to  proficiency  everywhere  ;  it  is  especially 
evil  when  the  first  habits  of  study  are  to  be 
formed.  Therefore  here  pronunciation,  deriva- 
tion, meaning,  grammar,  history,  geography, 
natural  science,  should  be  excluded  from  the 
thought  except  as  incidental  or  as  subservient 
and  ancillary  or  as  inferential. 

5.  To  spell  is  to  tell  the  names  of  the  charac- 
ters which  compose  the  written  word.  The 
teacher  gives  the  spoken  word  ;  it  is  incumbent 
on  him   to   pronounce  accurately  and  distinct!}'. 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  131 

It  is  a  good  practice  to  pronounce  each  word  in 
the  lesson  distinctly  to  the  learner  when  the 
lesson  is  first  assigned.  Pronunciation  is  gener- 
ally best  taught  in  this  way. 

6.  A  good-text  book  is  indispensable,  for  accu- 
racy, for  thoroughness,  for  method,  for  review. 
The  requisites  in  a  good  Speller  are: — i.  that  it 
present  in  their  organic  order  and  relationship 
all  the  alphabetic  elements  of  the  language  in  all 
the  diversity  of  forms  in  which  they  respectively 
appear,  2.  that  it  exemplify  each  of  these  phonic 
elements  in  a  sufficient  number  of  carefully 
selected  words  in  their  diverse  combinations, 
which  shall  serve  as  type-words  for  the  entire 
vocabulary  ;  3.  that  it  distribute  the  entire  vocab- 
ulary into  classes  with  these  type-words  as 
models  or  specimens,  as  a  botanist  distributes 
the  entire  flora  into  classes  represented  by  a 
comparatively  few  specimens,  so  that  a  full  knowl- 
edge of  the  type-words  gives  a  full  knowledge  of 
all  the  words  in  the  language,  making  good  spell- 
ing comparatively  a  simple  practicable  attainment ; 
4.  that  it  be  in  exact  method  throughout,  pro- 
ceeding from  the  simpler  to  the  more  com- 
plex combinations;  5.  that  it  group  the  selected 
representative  or  typical  words  in  lessons  con- 
venient for  use ;  6,  that  the  grouping  be  such 
as  to  be  a  guide  to  the  pronunciation  of  all 
the  words  in  the  respective  groups  and  also, 
subordinately,  to  exhibit  in  apparent  irregulari- 
ties  the    source    of   departure    from    the  normal 


132  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

form  of  the  word  ;  7.  that  it  be  so  compact, 
while  yet  covering  the  entire  vocabulary,  that 
the  average  mind  at  the  middle  of  the  primary 
stage  of  general  education  may  become  a  profi- 
cient in  the  art  of  spelling.  This,  it  is  believed, 
may  be  effected  in  a  period  of  two  or  three 
years  with  two  lessons  a  day  of  school  time,  one 
third  of  which  shall  be  in  review. 

7.  Oral  Spelling  needs  to  be  supplemented  by 
abundant,  systematic  drill  in  writing  lessons. 
The  exercises  in  English  will  afford  the  oppor- 
tunity requisite  for  this  necessary  drill   in  spell- 


ing- 


II.    Reading. 

1.  Reading  is  an  art,  and,  as  such,  involves  the 
three  essential  constituents  in  all  art :  — idea  to  be 
rendered,  matter  in  which  it  is  to  be  rendered  or 
vocal  sound,  and  the  actual  embodiment  of  the 
idea  in  the  sound.  §§  44-49.  To  read  well 
involves,  thus,  i.  knowledge  of  the  thought  and 
experience  of  the  feeling  to  be  rendered  ;  2. 
practical  mastery  of  the  voice  ;  3.  skill  in  actual 
embodiment  of  the  idea  in  the  vocal  sound. 

2.  All  vocal  sound  in  speech  is  essentially 
musical,  ever  appearing  under  the  relations  of 
pitch. 

3.  Particularly,  the  syllable  is  the  primary 
unit  of  speech.  The  fundamental  law  is : — 
Every  syllabic  has  a  detenninate  moveuicnt  in 
pitch. 


MENTAL  education:  1 33 

4.  The  pitch-intervals  in  speech  are  the  tone, 
the  semi-tone,  the  major  and  minor  thirds,  the 
falling  fourth,  the  rising  fifth,  and  the  octave. 
These  intervals  occur  as  simple  slides  or  as  waves 
in  diverse  combinations  of  slides.  The  transi- 
tions in  pitch  from  syllable  to  syllable,  in  other 
words,  the  skips  in  speech  are  also  through  the 
intervals  enumerated — the  semi-tone,  the  tone,  the 
major  and  minor  thirds,  the  fifth,  and  octave. 

5.  Education  in  singing  is  conditional  and 
helpful  to  the  best  education  in  reading.  The 
one  should  be  in  closest  union  with  the  other. 

6.  A  text-book  is  alike  indispensable  for 
effective  training  in  each.  To  learn  in  either  case 
only  by  rote — by  imitation — is  a  by-gone  in  edu- 
cational history. 

7.  The  text-book  in  reading  should  present 
in  progressive,  orderly  methods,  i.  exercises  in 
vocal  culture — Phonics  ;  2.  exercises  in  proper 
orthoepy  or  the  pronunciation  of  words  ;  3.  ex- 
ercises in  proper  elocution  or  the  actual  render- 
ing of  thought  in  speech.  It  will  need  of  course 
to  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  learner, 
rudimentary  while  methodical  and  thorough  for 
the  beginner,  with  correspondingly  higher 
grades  for  the  more  advanced.  Separate  text- 
books may  answer  best  for  the  several  stages 
mentioned. 

8.  Vocal  culture  will  seek  to  develop  vocal 
power  or  volume  and  compass  of  voice  together 
with  fitting  quality,  as  purity  and  mellowness. 


134  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

9.  Orthoepy  or  word-pronunciation  involves 
I.  Articulation;  2.  Syllabication;  3.  Accentua- 
tion. It  is  indirectly  taught  in  spelling  lessons, 
as  already  indicated. 

10.  Elocution  proper  embraces  i.  the  pos- 
session of  the  thousfht  to  be  rendered  in  its  own 
relationships  and  its  modifications  by  feeling ; 
and  2.  skill  in  the  divers  movements  of  the  voice  in 
rendering  thought  and  feeling  according"  to  these 
relations  and  modifications. 

11.  Rudimentary  education  necessarily  occu- 
pies itself  mainly  with  the  first  of  these  two  req- 
uisites— getting  ready  and  accurate  possession  of 
the  thought  from  out  of  the  printed  form. 

12.  The  true  education,  here  as  everywhere, 
proceeds  from  element  to  element,  securing  prac- 
tical mastery  of  each,  in  scientific  method 
through  the  entire  science  or  art.  The  thorough, 
scientific  way  is  as  a  rule  the  shortest,  easiest,, 
only  satisfactory  way.  The  well-trained  reader, 
as  the  well-trained  speller,  will  ever  feel  assured 
as  to  the  character  of  his  performance  ; — will 
know  when  he  reads  well,  that  he  reads  well,  and 
how  it  is  that  he  reads  well. 


III.    Writing.       ^ 

I.  Penmanship  is  an  art  to  be  acquired  by 
judicious  orderly  practice.  The  text-book  or  the 
instructor  must  furnish  the  copy  ;  the  practice 
will  be  chiefly  in  imitation.     The  characters  of  a 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  1 35 


good  style  in  penmanship  are,  i.  Beauty  in  the 
form  of  the  letter,  requiring  uniformity  in  the 
similar  parts  with  contrast  in  direction  and 
length  of  line  and  in  shading ;  and  2.  facility  in 
executing. 

2.  Training  should  be  by  single  elements  in 
order:  i.  Straight  lines;  2.  curved  lines ;  3.  con- 
nections between  different  letters. 

3.  ^Esthetic  principles  in  penmanship  require. 
First,  uniformity  in  all  like  elements  or  charac- 
ters, as  in  the  slope  for  all  the  straight  lines  as 
also  for  all  the  curves  and  for  the  loops  in  the 
looped  letters  ;  in  length  of  like  elements  above 
or  below  the  line ;  and  the  like. 

Secondly,  that  the  slope  of  the  curved  be 
adapted  to  the  slope  of  the  straight  lines  and  of 
the  looped  letters. 

4.  The  slope  may  vary  from  the  nearly  perpen- 
dicular when  the  curves  must  be  nearly  circular 
to  the  nearly  horizontal  when  all  the  curves  will 
be  very  flattened  ovals.  When  the  general  slope 
is  between  these  extremes,  the  curves  will  vary 
correspondingly  from  the  more  circular  with 
nearly  perpendicular  lines  to  the  oval  becoming 
more  flattened  with  the  greater  slope.  Neither 
the  absolutely  perpendicular,  nor  the  absolutely 
circular,  nor  the  sharply  angular  is  aesthetic. 

5.  Practice  in  penmanship  may  most  usefully 
be  made  subsidiary  to  the  acquisition  of  the  art 
of  Book-keeping — an  art  in  which  all  should  be 
trained  so  far  as  to  be  able  to  keep  fair  accounts 


136  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

of  money  values  received  and  expended.  Its 
simplest  form  is  that  of  cash  received  and  ex- 
pended. When  other  possessions  are  added, 
note  of  the  source  from  which  received  and  the 
object  on  which  expended,  with  simple  indexing 
will  be  added  accordingly.  Two  books,  which 
may  indeed  conveniently  except  in  commercial 
usages  be  comprised  in  one,  suffice  for  ordinary 
purposes:  1.  the  Journal,  which  contains  in  sim- 
plest terms  the  record  of  the  transaction,  giving 
the  source  from  which  the  money  value  con- 
cerned is  received — the  credit  side  of  the  account, 
and  also  the  object  to  which  appropriated — the 
debit  account ;  2.  the  Ledger,  which  simply  indi- 
cates the  page  of  the  journal  where  the  transac- 
tion is  recorded  and  also  tabulates  the  values  on 
their  respective  debit  and  credit  sides. 

IV.    Arithmetic. 

1.  Arithmetic  is  the  doctrine  of  numerical 
quantity  ;  as  Geometry  is  the  doctrine  of  spacial 
quantity. 

2.  Arithmetic  as  a  science  is  studied  only  by 
the  thinker ;  it  is  as  an  art  that  it  chiefly,  if  not 
wholly,  commands  the  attention  of  the  educator. 
Its  aim  or  end  is  intelligent  practice  rather 
than  increase  of  knowledge ;  skill  rather  than 
science. 

3.  Its  characteristic  method  is  continued  and 
abundant   practice   in  orderly  progress  from   the 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  1 37 

simplest  to  the  most   complex  with  clear  under 
standing  of   the    nature  and    grounds    of   every 
process. 

4.  The  one  commanding  condition  of  success- 
ful study  is  such  familiar  understanding  of 
every  step  from  beginning  to  end,  such  per- 
fect practical  mastery  of  each  in  succession,  as 
will  make  the  mental  movement  in  compli- 
cated operations,  as  it  were,  automatic  or  in- 
stinctive. 

5.  Quantity,  as  quantity,  admits  of  the  single 
modification  by  increase  or  decrease.  In  the  last 
analysis  all  arithmetical  changes  are  resolvable 
into  such  increase  or  decrease  by  a  single  unit — 
into  adding  or  subtracting  one.  The  mind  that 
can  intelligently  add  one  to  a  quantity  or  take 
one  from  it  has  the  germ  of  all  arithmetical 
capacity  and  skill. 

6.  The  body  of  arithmetical  teaching  and 
training  consists  in  the  unfolding  in  orderly  suc- 
cession of  the  processes  by  which  numerical  com- 
putation may  be  abbreviated  or  simplified  ;  Digi- 
tal Notation  being  a  contrivance  for  com- 
pendious expression  of  units  in  quantity,  Multi- 
plication being  only  compendious  addition, 
etc. 

7.  A  fundamental  principle  in  all  numerical 
processes  requires  that  the  units  concerned  be 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  same  class  of 
objects  ;  we  cannot  add  two  dollars  to  two 
bushels  of  wheat,  the  sum  being  neither  four  dol- 


138  EDUCATIONAL  WORK. 

lars  nor  four  bushels.  All  quantity  rests  on  the 
fundamental  attribute  of  all  thought — Identity 
— and  presupposes  it,  §  56. 

8.  As  lying  thus  near  the  lowest  foundations 
of  all  thought  or  knowledge,  the  science  of  quan- 
tity possesses  the  highest  degree  of  certitude  in 
human  thought.  It  excels  accordingly  all  other 
sciences  in  presenting  to  the  forming  mind  the 
ideal  of  exactest  and  surest  knowledge.  In  this 
field  of  human  experiences  there  reigns  absolute 
certainty,  so  long  at  least  as  thought  is  real  and 
is  true  to  itself.  Absolute  skepticism,  universal 
doubt,  is  annihilated  in  the  domain  of  mathemat- 
ical truth. 

9.  The  introductory  step  in  the  study  of 
mathematics  generally  and  in  that  of  each  suc- 
cessive part  of  it,  is  the  learning  of  the  notation, 
including  the  representatives  used  of  the  quanti- 
ties, as  in  arithmetic  the  digital,  and  in  algebra 
the  literal  and  in  the  higher  branches  the  func- 
tional character  or  signs  and  the  like,  and  also 
the  indications  of  the  processes  and  relations  as 
the  symbols  or  signs  of  plus  and  minus,  those  of 
division,  of  fractional  expression,  involution  and 
evolution,  etc.  Thoroughness  here,  that  shall 
amount  to  the  most  familiar  practical  mastery,  is 
imperatively  requisite. 

10.  The  progress  in  the  study  needs  to  be 
characterized  throughout  by  the  same  thorough 
work.  The  study  is  thus  made  easy,  attractive, 
successful. 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  I  39 


V.    Grammar. 

1.  *' Grammar,"  says  Ben  Jonson,  "  is  the  art 
of  true  and  well  speaking  a  language  ;  the  writ- 
ing is  but  an  accident." 

2.  A  proper  science  of  a  language  can  be 
advantageously  studied  only  in  the  most 
advanced  stages  of  education.  The  genesis  and 
history  of  a  language  in  itself  and  its  connections 
with  other  languages^  its  elements  and  forms  and 
laws,  are  beyond  the  period  of  ordinary  public 
instruction. 

3.  Grammar  as  an  art  is  of  a  twofold  character 
according  as  it  deals  with  the  interpretation  or 
with  the  construction  of  discourse.  We  have 
accordingly  Interpretative  Grammar  and  Con- 
structive Grammar. 

4.  Speech  is  the  verbal  expression  of  thought. 
Thought  is  the  vital,  germinal  element  ;  words  or 
language  the  embodiment  which  the  thought 
takes  on  in  its  expression  in  vocal  sound. 

5.  As  thought  is  complete  only  in  the  act  of 
intelligence  known  as  the  judgment,  tlie  primal 
and  elemental  speech-form  is  tJie  sentence. 

6.  But  as  speech  is  rational  and  therefore 
properly  ever  involves  an  end  or  object,  when  it 
is  regarded  in  this  light  or  in  this  reference  to  a 
rational  end,  it  becomes  discourse. 

7.  Speech-forming  proceeds  by  the  following 
distinguishable  stages  of  accretion  : — 


140  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

(r.)  It  starts  from  the  expiration  of  the 
breatJi  ; 

(2.)  The  breath  vocalized  becomes  vocal 
sound  ; 

(3.)  The  vocalized  breath  being  articulated 
produces  the  alphabetic  element  or  letter  ; 

(4.)  The  letter  receiving  the  determinate 
pitch-movement  makes  the  syllable  ; 

(5.)  The  syllable,  single  or  combined,  receiv- 
ing significance  or  idea  becomes  a  ivord ; 

(6.)  The  word,  single  or  combined,  rational- 
ized or  uttered  for  an  end,  becomes  rational  dis- 
course. 

8.  Grammar,  in  the  broadest  sense,  embraces 
the  two  distinguishable  parts  of  (i)  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentence  or  complete  thought- 
form  ;  and  (2)  the  construction  of  rational  speech 
or  discourse.  The  former  part  of  the  art  is  now 
denoted  by  the  term  Grammar,  as  used  in  the 
narrower  sense.  The  latter  part,  or  the  construc- 
tion of  proper  rational  speech  or  discourse,  is 
denominated  Rhetoric. 

9.  Constructive  Grammar,  accordingly,  in  the 
narrower  sense,  has  for  its  one  subject  matter, 
the  construction  of  the  sentence.  It  is  properly 
applied  to  one's  vernacular  tongue. 

10.  Interpretative  Grammar  is  properly  ap- 
plied to  foreign  languages ;  that  is,  to  other  lan- 
guages than  one's  vernacular.  It  has  a  method 
throughout  peculiar  to  itself  and  entirely  differ- 
ent from  that  of  constructive  grammar. 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  I4I 

11.  The  ill-success  in  teaching  Grammar  is  at- 
tributable chiefly  either  to  the  failure  to  distin- 
guish the  science  from  the  art,  the  science  being 
admissible  only  into  advanced  education,  or  the 
failure  to  distinguish  the  Interpretative  Gram- 
mar from  the  Constructive  Grammar.  The 
methods  in  these  arts  being  just  the  reverse  of 
each  other,  to  confound  them  is  of  course  to 
prevent  successful  training  in  either. 

12.  The  grammatical  sentence  is  made  up  of 
three  essential  elements,  (i)  that  of  which  one 
thinks  or  speaks — the  subject  ;  (2)  that  which  he 
thinks  or  speaks  of  it — the  attribute  ;  and  (3)  the 
attributing  act  or  the  positive  affirming  or  deny- 
ing of  the  attribute  as  belonging  to  the  subject 
— the  copula.  §52.  These  thought-forms  appear 
normally  in  the  noun,  the  adjective,  the  verb. 

13.  Besides  these  three  principal  and  ever 
essential  elements,  there  are  the  subsidiary  ele- 
ments, found  to  be  of  convenience  for  limiting 
or  modifying  respectively  the  several  principal 
elements ;  (i)  the  modifier  of  the  subject,  the 
grammatical  adjective  being  the  natural  speech- 
form  for  this  modifier;  (2)  the  modifier  of  the 
attribute  or  Mr  adverb;  (3)  the  modifier  of  the 
copula  or  proper  verb  form,  called  the  modal. 

14.  In  addition  to  these  constituents  entering 
into  the  sentence,  there  are  words  expressing 
relations  either  between  the  elements  named  or 
between  sentences — prepositions  and  conjiinctions, 
sometimes,  but  inadequately,  icvmtd  fonn-zuords. 


142  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

15.  Still  further,  besides  these  normal  forms 
there  have  crept  into  speech  certain  irregularities 
or  anomalies,  for  the  most  part  through  the  con- 
flict of  different  principles  of  language — abnormal 
grammatical  forms. 

16.  It  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
vital  element  in  the  art  of,  true  speaking,  is  the 
thought  to  be  expressed.  All  speech-forms  are 
properly  thought-forms  put  into  articulated  and 
musical  sound.  All  training  in  the  art  should 
proceed  from  the  thought ;  this  is  essential. 
The  one  dominating  question  throughout  is : 
Having  a  thought  to  express,  how  am  I  to  ex- 
press it  properly  in  language  ?  Education  pro- 
poses no  question  more  inspiring  to  the  ambition 
of  a  youthful  mind. 

17.  It  is  obvious  from  this  synopsis  of  the 
sentence,  its  nature,  its  constituents,  its  normal 
and  abnormal  forms,  that  training  in  "  the  art  of 
true  and  well  speaking,"  rightly  conducted,  is 
simple  and  rational  ;  that  it  is  practicable  even  in 
the  early  stages  of  primary  education,  and  may 
be  prosecuted  with  satisfaction  to  both  teacher 
and  pupil  ;  that  every  step  in  the  progress  ex- 
plains itself,  each  grammatical  form  exhibiting 
its  own  nature  and  use  ;  that  the  needful  prac- 
tice, may  be  made  perfectly  simple,  proceeding 
element  by  element  to  the  most  complicated 
expressions  of  thought.  Grammar,  as  such  a 
constructive  art,  becomes  thus  a  study  both  prac- 
ticable and  attractive  ;  of  the  highest  disciplinary 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  1 43 

character :  and  the  most  important  for  the  uses 
and  ends  of  a  true  education. 

18,  Rhetoric  is  the  complementary  of  Gram- 
mar as  a  constructive  art  and  its  proper  consum- 
mation. The  governing  principles  of  training  in 
it  are  obvious  from  the  summary  exposition  just 
given. 

(i.)  The  training  should  always  bring  in  the 
rational  end  or  object  in  speaking  or  writing — in 
all  rational  discourse.  The  one  grand  explana- 
tion of  the  prevalent  repulsiveness  of  "  composi- 
tion-writing "  to  the  pupil,  is  this  :  that  it  re- 
quires of  him  what  is  most  irrational  or  self-con- 
tradictory,—to  do  a  rational  act  without  any 
rational  end  or  aim  in  it.  To  write  a  narrative 
of  some  event  of  interest  or  a  description  of  a 
scene  or  object,  or  a  defense  of  an  avowed  opin- 
ion, or  a  persuasive  request  for  a  favor  is  easy  and 
attractive,  simply  because  inspired  by  a  rational 
object. 

(2.)  The  thought  must  be  in  the  possession 
of  the  mind  before  it  can  be  expressed.  All 
rhetorical  training  should  begin  with  the  thought 
as  connected  with  the  object  for  expressing  it — 
in  other  words,  with  the  theme  considered  in 
reference  to  the  object  in  presenting  it,  and 
should  never  suffer  it  to  drop  out  of  view  or  relin- 
quish its  control  over  the  whole  process. 

(3.)  The  few  distinguishable  objects  of  ra- 
tional discourse  and  the  few  distinguishable  proc- 
esses by  which  these  several  objects  are   to  be 


144  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

attained  in  discourse,  permit  the  general  divisions 
of  the  art  for  the  study  of  all  rhetorical  forms 
one  by  one  in  the  concentrated  light  of  the  nature 
and  laws  of  each. 

Invention,  or  the  supply  and  specification 
of  the  thought  to  be  expressed  in  reference  to 
the  object  of  the  discourse,  thus  constitutes  the 
primary  and  governing  part  of  rhetoric.  Style 
becomes  subordinate  and  subservient;  and  so 
criticism  becomes  intelligible.  Earnest  purpose 
to  express  well  defined  thought  easily  satisfies 
itself  whether  the  verbal  expression  is  or  is  not 
exactly  what  it  should  be  in  its  highest  perfec- 
tion of  form. 

19.  The  exercises  in  constructive  grammar  or 
the  art  of  expressing  thought  in  one's  vernacular 
tongue  should  begin  in  the  earliest  stages  of 
education.  They  will  serve  at  the  same  time 
as  exercises  in  spelling  and  in  writing.  They 
should  be  frequent  and  systematically  progres- 
sive. After  preparatory  practice  in  writing  words 
more  for  training  in  spelling  and  penmanship, 
the  simple  sentence  in  its  simplest  form  will  be 
undertaken  and  will  be  continued  through  the 
entire  complement  of  distinct  grammatical  ele- 
ments and  forms.  In  this  progress,  however,  the 
simpler  rhetorical  forms  may  be  introduced — 
as  the  narrative  or  the  descriptive — preceded  by 
the  primary  forms  of  punctuation  and  its  rules 
which  should  be  thoroughly  mastered  at  the  start. 
In  all  these  more  rhetorical  exercises,  even   the 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  145 

most  simple,  the  pupil  should  be  made  aware  of 
the  thought  which  he  is  to  communicate — the 
theme  as,  in  narrative,  the  event  or  the  incident. 
To  this  he  may  be  guided  by  some  literary  extract 
read  to  him,  or  some  reference  to  his  own  experi- 
ence or  observation,  or  reading.  He  should  also 
be  made  aware  that  in  writing  he  has  an  object 
to  accomplish,  as  in  narrative  to  communicate  in 
the  best  way  he  can  his  knowledge  of  the  theme 
supposably  to  some  one  else.  TJievic  and  object 
should  thus  both  be  dominant  in  his  mind,  guid- 
ing and  inspiring,  as  in  a  truly  rational  pro- 
cedure. 

III.      MORAL  EDUCATION. 

%  57.  The  ^vilHs  the  last  of  the  three  great 
functions  of  the  human  mind  in  order  of  devel- 
opment. Its  action  is  conditioned  both  by 
that  of  the  function  of  form  and  of  the  intelli- 
gence, as  it  cannot  move  until  called  forth  by 
some  object  which  can  reach  it  only  through 
the  sense  or  function  of  form,  nor  move  with  any 
assurance  of  success  except  in  knowledge  of  its 
object  and  of  the  way  of  reaching  it  to  attain 
its  end.  The  function  is  the  finishing  element  in 
the  constitution  of  mind  and  its  crowning  glory. 
It  is  the  immediate  former  of  character  in  man 
and  so  the  prime  determiner  of  his  destiny.  It 
demands  accordingly  as  imperatively  as  either  of 
the  mental  functions,  the  care  of  the  educator. 
By  whatever  agency  the  work  is  carried  on,  the 
10 


146  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

science  of  education  has  for  its  proper  province 
to  unfold  the  general  principles  and  methods  by 
which  the  work  must  be  governed.  It  must 
accordingly  set  forth  the  essential  characteristics 
and  relationships  of  this  function  and  its  generic 
laws  and  forms. 

The  training  here  begins  in  earliest  infancy  and 
continues  through  life.     Soon  as  the  opening  life 
becomes    capable   of  communicating  with    outer 
realities,  the  moral  culture  may  and  in  all  wisdom 
should    begin.      The    absolute    dependence    at 
beginning  life  involves  subjection  to  the  will  of 
others  ;  and    the  gentlest  touch  of  constraint  as 
the    change   of    posture    or   the    turning   of   the 
finger  sufifices  for  the  most  part   to  enforce  this 
subjection.     Such  early  lessons  followed  out  con- 
sistently and  perseveringly  are  the  best  and  most 
efificient    inculcations    of    morality.      Character, 
good  or  bad,  takes  its  start  in  the  nursery.     Intel- 
ligent and  faithful  training  here  is  the  best  guar- 
anty that  the  future  life  shall  be  what  it  ought  to_ 
be.     Dependence  is  the  best  school  of  obedience 
which  is  of  the  very  essence  of  duty  and  of  all 
morality.      This   condition,   so   favorable    if    not 
needful  for  moral  training,  continues  through  the 
entire  period  of  education.     All   along  the  way  by 
example  as  well  as  by  precept  and  by  enforce- 
ment of  conformity  to  higher  rule,  this  teaching 
is  given.      Education  everywhere  must  of  neces- 
sity influence  morals. 

§  58.    The  essential  characteristic  of  the  will  is 


4 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  147 

that  it  is  directive.  It  is  directive  in  the  largest 
sense.  It  directs  the  entire  mental  activit}-, 
summoning  forth  its  energy  and  so  determining; 
the  intensity  of  its  action  ;  directing  this  or  that 
function  on  this  way  or  that,  by  selecting  the 
object  of  action.  It  directs  the  whole  mind  in 
the  entireness  of  its  energy;  it  also  directs  each 
functional  department,  the  sensibility  and  imag- 
ination and  the  intelligence,  as  also  itself  in  sub- 
ordinate, executive  action.  This  directing  power 
seems  to  exhaust  its  active  nature  ;  if  at  least  we 
include  in  it  its  permissive  work.  It  is  here  indeed 
that  its  presence  is  to  be  discovered  to  a  large 
extent.  The  human  will  permits  probably  far 
more  than  it  positively  orders,  idly  suffering  the 
spontaneous  or  habitual  flow  of  feeling  and 
thought  and  quietly  leaving  the  active  nature  of 
the  mind  to  its  own  trend  or  appetency.  It  is 
a  great  part  of  the  work  of  education  to  train  the 
will  to  faithfulness  in  its  office-work  of  actually 
ruling  over  the  whole  man  so  far  as  may  lie 
within  its  nature. 

§  59.  The  fundamental  and  comprehensive 
law  of  voluntary  or  moral  action  is  derived  at 
once  from  the  deepest  principle  of  life — that  each 
member  minister  beneficially  to  the  perfection 
of  the  whole  organism  and  inclusively  of  every 
part.  To  become  perfectly  what  it  was  designed 
and  fitted  to  be  is  the  one  grand  all-inclusive 
principle  or  law  of  all  life.  So  the  one  all-inclu- 
sive principle  or  law  of  human   life  is  that  it  be- 


148  EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

come  what  it  was  made  to  be,  that  is,  become 
what  it  ought  to  become.  It  is  the  ground  and 
significance  of  oughtness,  of  obligation.  We  have 
thus  the  highest,  broadest  principle  of  morals, 
the  maxim  of  universal  reach  :  Be  and  become 
your  best  in  actual  ministration  to  the  truest 
good  of  every  object  within  your  reach,  which 
good  is  simply  the  highest  perfection  of  its  na- 
ture ;  thereby  and  thereby  only  do  you  effect 
your  own  highest  good,  which  is,  the  perfection 
of  your  own  nature.  The  principle  of  life  in- 
volves a  reciprocal  inter-dependence  between  all 
the  members.  Each  particular  member  therefore 
can  secure  its  own  highest  perfection  only 
through  a  favoring  condition  of  soundness  and 
organic  helpfulness  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
whole.  The  maxim  may  for  practical  conven- 
ience receive  a  broader  statement :  Be  ever  at 
your  best  in  viinistering  to  the  good — tlie-  true  per- 
fection— of  your  own  character  and  of  that  of  all 
around  yon. 

The  generic  forms  of  all  voluntary  or  moral 
activity  are  best  determined  in  reference  to  the 
respective  objects  towards  which  it  is  exerted. 
These  are  for  man,  self,  felloiv-men,  God.  Such 
is  the  comprehensive  classification  of  all  duty — 
personal,  social,  religious. 

The  work  of  education  is  thus  precisely  indi- 
cated. In  all  fitting  ways  and  at  all  times  it  is  to 
seek  to  nurture  up  and  train  to  a  settled  control- 
ling   habit  of    duty.     The   modes   by  which  this 


MENTAL  EDUCATION.  1 49 

training  is  to  be  effected  are  summarily  threefold. 
First,  by  exemplification  ;  Secondly,  by  formal 
precept ;  Thirdly,  by  steadfast  enforcement  of 
obedience. 

§  61.  Moral  training  begins  in  exemplification 
of  duty.  The  very  idea  of  duty,  of  its  nature 
and  reality,  and  its  specific  forms  comes  first  to 
the  child  from  others.  It  is  a  natural  instinct  in 
the  new  human  life  to  imitate — to  do  and  be 
what  others  do  and  are.  Here  also  is  enlisted 
the  immeasurable  power  of  sympathy,  that  works 
as  silently  as  resistlessly.  All  the  respective 
virtues  and  graces  of  character  are  thus  best 
inculcated  through  sympathetic,  judicious,  syste- 
matic exemplification,  as  courage,  patience,  gen- 
tleness, courtesy,  fairness,  kindness,  piety.  So 
those  more  conditional  leadings  up  to  higher 
duty,  its  supports  and  fortresses,  the  duties  of 
punctuality — of  strict  observance  of  all  the 
relationships  of  time,  and  of  special  order 
— the  observance  of  all  the  demands  of  place — 
require  for  their  inculcation,  to  be  exemplified 
everywhere.  "  A  time  for  everything  and  every- 
thing in  its  time,"  and  "a  place  for  everything 
and  everything  in  its  place,"  are  most  important 
maxims  in  moral  training. 

2.  Yox\Xi-s\  precept  is  more  or  less  needful  here 
as  in  all  training.  The  indication  of  the  duty  to 
be  done,  at  the  time  as  at  all  times,  and  where  as 
well  as  when,  is  equally  necessary  here  as  in  all 
education   and    frequent  opportunity  is  furnished 


150  EDUCATIONAL  WORK'. 

all  along  the  course  of  mental  training  for  direct 
precept,  more  or  less  specific.  The  extended 
study  of  moral  science  or  ethics  will  of  course  be 
deferred  to  an  advanced  stage  of  education.  Still 
not  a  little  may  be  accomplished  in  indoctrinating 
a  younger  pupil  in  the  general  principles  of 
morality.  Reverent  devotion  to  God  and  sympa- 
thetic beneficence  to  men,  as  the  grand  compre- 
hensive law  of  human  duty,  and  its  subordinate 
principles  of  moral  action,  may  be  inculcated  in 
more  or  less  specific  application  to  every-day 
conduct  and  life,  in  ever  recurring  opportunity, 
perhaps  more  effectively  than  through  extended, 
systematic  and  merely  doctrinal  instruction. 
Religion,  morality,  it  should  be  remembered,  is 
a  practice  or  life,  not  a  knowledge. 

3.  The  firm  enforcement  of  duty  is  the  third 
and  a  most  effective  way  of  moral  training.  It 
reveals  the  fact  and  nature  of  authority  as  reach- 
ing to  all  moral  beings,  and  the  necessity  of 
ready  and  faithful  obedience.  The  rewards  and 
punishments  that  may  be  brought  to  its  support 
will  exemplify  the  motives  to  this  obedience. 

In  order  that  this  exercise  of  authority  in  the 
enforcement  of  duty  may  be  most  effective  in 
moral  training  it  is  obvious  that  the  authority 
exercised  should  be  grounded  and  directed  in 
reason.  Only  a  reasonable  authority  can  avail 
for  its  good  with  a  rational  nature.  The  right  to 
exercise  it  must  exist  and  must  be  recognized. 
It  must  be  restricted   to  its  proper  sphere.     The 


MENTAL  EDUCA  TION.  I  5  I 

administration  of  it  must  also  be  in  itself  a 
rational  procedure.  It  must  accordingly  be  in 
sympathy — in  genuine  kindly  interest,  neither  in 
excessive  passion  nor  in  selfish  indifference  and 
recklessness  or  as  mere  matter  of  form.  It  must 
be  intelligent  of  the  character  and  need  of  the 
subject,  of  the  fitness  of  the  occasion,  of  the 
mode  and  degree  of  its  exercise.  It  must  more- 
over be  with  clear  discernment  of  the  end  and 
design  and  be  adapted  to  accomplish  this  end. 
It  must  in  short  be  sympathetically  and  intelli- 
gently purposive  or  with  express  aim  and  intent. 
Again,  the  administration  of  authority  in  edu- 
cation must  be  supreme  in  its  sphere.  It  is  re- 
ported of  an  English  schoolmaster  that  when  one 
day  his  school  was  visited  by  King  George  IV. 
he  received  his  majesty  with  just  the  ordinary 
courtesy  between  equals  and  continued  his  in- 
structions as  usual.  But  when  the  king  took  his 
departure  the  schoolmaster  followed  him  outside 
of  the  hall  and  on  his  knees  begged  his  majesty's 
forgiveness,  alleging  his  warmest  loyalty  and 
apologizing  for  his  seeming  disrespect  by  saying 
that  unless  his  scholars  believed  that  he  was  su- 
preme master  over  them  in  the  school-room  they 
would  be  entirely  uncontrollable.  There  was 
true  philosophy  in  this.  If  parents  or  guardians 
intervene,  the  intervention  of  itself  terminates  so 
far  the  relation  between  teacher  and  pupil.  The 
teacher  is  nothing  without  the  authority  pertain- 
ing to  his  office,  §  14. 


152  EDUCATIONAL   WORK'. 

Further,  this  administration  of  authority  must 
ever  maintain  and  evince  a  steadfast  confidence  in 
its  effectiveness — that  it  will  be  obeyed.  Such 
quiet  manifestation  of  confidence  on  the  part  of 
the  educator  in  the  dutifulness  and  right  behavior 
of  his  charge  is  an  indispensable  means  of  effect- 
ing it. 

Once  more,  in  order  to  the  full  effectiveness  of 
this  administration  of  authority,  it  must  be  con- 
sistent and  firm  ;  vacillation  and  fickleness  are 
fatal  to  rational  authority. 


BOOK    III. 

EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY — EDUCATIONAL    LIMITS. 

§  62.  The  work  of  education,  as  a  rational 
procedure  and  as  dealing  with  rational  natures,  is 
necessarily  shaped  and  determined  by  the  ends 
or  results  that  are  proposed  either  generally  or 
specially.  The  consideration  of  this  teleological 
characteristic  acts  back  on  the  factors  concerned 
in  the  work,  determining  their  character  and 
respective  qualifications  and  on  the  work  itself 
determining  how  it  must  proceed.  All  growth  is 
towards  an  end  or  result ;  and  it  is  the  compre- 
hensive function  of  education  to  secure  this  end. 
Every  living  thing  bears  in  its  own  being  in  ref- 
erence to  its  environment  the  idea  of  what  it  was 
made  and  fitted  to  become  ;  it  has  its  own  type- 
form  or  norm.  The  comprehensive  law  of  its 
life  is  to  attain  this  type-form  in  its  highest  pos- 
sible   perfection.     There  is  such  a  type-form  or 

153 


I  54  EDUCA  TIOI^AL  RESUL TS. 

norm  attached  to  man  as  a  living,  growing,  but 
specifically  rational  being.  The  highest  law  of 
growth  and  consequently  of  education  to  him, 
thus,  is  as  before  indicated,  §  59,  that  he  become 
his  best  and  ever  hold  himself  at  his  best  in 
sympathetic  and  intelligent  beneficent  ministry  to 
himself  and  his  fellow  beings  ; — in  other  words, 
perfect  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  his  character 
and  condition.  The  grand  importance  and 
broad  significance  of  this  law  of  growth  and  edu- 
cation are  forcibly  presented  to  us  in  the  follow- 
ing quotation  from  Condorcet : — 

"  If,"  says  he,  "  the  indefinite  improvement  of 
our  species  is  a  general  law  of  nature,  man 
ought  no  longer  to  regard  himself  as  a  being  lim- 
ited to  a  transitory  and  isolated  existence,  des- 
tined to  vanish  after  an  alternative  of  happiness 
or  of  misery  for  himself  and  of  good  and  evil  for 
those  whom  chance  has  placed  near  him  ;  but  he 
becomes  an  active  part  of  the  grand  whole  and  a 
fellow  laborer  in  a  work  that  is  eternal.  In  an 
existence  of  a  moment  and  upon  a  point  in 
space,  he  can  by  his  works,  compass  all  places, 
relate  himself  to  all  the  centuries,  and  continue 
to  act  long  centuries  after  his  memory  has  dis- 
appeared from  the  earth." 

Education  in  its  prosecution  of  this  high  aim 
is,  however,  like  all  things  human,  subject  to 
divers  limitations.  Growth  itself  has  its  own 
limits  ;  it  proceeds  by  stages ;  it  changes  with 
progress  both  its  direction  and  its  processes.    With 


INTRODUCTORY— EDUCATIONAL  LIMITS.    I  55 

right  factors  doing  legitimate  work  in  their  inter- 
action, the  consideration  of  this  modifying  char- 
acteristic of  growth  necessitates  a  modifying 
direction  in  the  work  of  education.  It  becomes 
necessary  for  the  science  of  education  to  exhibit 
the  character  and  effect  of  this  modification  as 
supervening  the  normal  procedure.  Further,  the 
work  of  education  is  subject  to  a  limitation  or 
interruption  of  its  service  by  reason  particularly 
of  inadequate  means  or  of  extreme  necessities  of 
condition  on  the  part  of  its  pupil. 

Still  again,  this  work  is  subject  to  modifica- 
tion by  reason  of  the  necessity  of  its  fitting  for 
the  manifold  diversity  of  callings  and  occupa- 
tions in  the  social  life  and  conditions  of  men. 
The  respective  modifications  thus  required,  in  a 
system  of  education  aiming  generally  at  the  per- 
fection of  human  character  and  condition,  will  be 
exhibited  in  the  following  chapters  of  this  book. 


CHAPTER  II. 

GROWTH    PERIODS. 

§  63.  The  fact  that  in  all  true  growth  each 
step  is  preparatory  to  what  is  to  follow  suggests 
a  twofold  law  for  regulating  all  educational 
work  ; — First,  it  should  always  be  previsional. 
Nothing  should  be  done  at  haphazard  or  at  the 
dictation  of  mere  convenience  or  of  accidental 
circumstance  ;  but  everything  arranged  and  done 
for  the  better  promotion  of  the  succeeding 
growth.  Secondly,  the  work  should  so  perfect 
and  assure  every  step  of  progress  already  made 
that  it  shall  be  in  fact  a  basis  of  advance  and  a 
help  to  it.  Experience  abundantly  shows  that 
not  only  is  a  large  portion  of  precious  educa- 
tional time  wasted  by  negligence  here,  but  that  a 
large  portion  of  the  failures  in  advanced  educa- 
tion are  attributable  to  this  neglect.  Not  infre- 
quently is  the  despairing  confessi9n  thus  made 
in  respect  to  mathematical  studies:  "I  never 
could  understand  mathematics:  it  is  utterly  use- 
less to  try  the  study  ;  I  hate  it."  The  trouble 
arises  generally  from  a  failure  to  master  the 
beginnings  of  the  study ;  for  nothing  can  be 
more  certain  than  that   the   knowledge  of  quan- 

156 


GKO IV TH  PERIODS.  I  5  7 

tity  is  about  the  first  and  easiest  attainment, 
since  this  category  is  about  the  lowest  and  most 
comprehensive  of  all  the  categories  of  thought, 
so  that  there  must  be  absolute  want  of  intelli- 
gence or  thinking  capacity  if  there  be  inability 
to  understand  its  nature  and  applications.  All 
numerical  quantity  starts  from  the  simple  "one 
and  one  "  and  under  the  guidance  of  this  princi- 
ple runs  through  its  grand  career.  The  human 
mind  readily  apprehends  this  principle,  and  by 
its  own  laws  of  growth  can  march  along  step  by 
step  with  all  the  progressive  developments  of  the 
numerical  principle.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  avows 
respecting  himself  that  whatever  others  might 
think  of  his  labors  they  were  to  him  but  as  a 
child  playing  along  the  shore  picking  up  pebble 
by  pebble  and  shell  by  shell.  Another  eminent 
mathematician,  when  asked  how  he  won  his 
remarkable  skill  in  these  problems  modestly 
replied,  "  I  do  not  know  how  else  than  by  simply 
mastering  each  step  as  I  went  along."  To 
advance  the  learner  by  easy  and  assured  stages 
must  be  a  leading  principle  in  effective  training. 

The  principle  is  corroborated  by  a  considera- 
tion of  the  successive  changes  in  the  rational  life 
of  man.  Childhood  is  volatile  ;  it  is  passively  open 
and  receptive  to  whatever  addresses  it.  Youth 
is  versatile  ;  it  turns  with  an  impulse  from 
within  to  the  objects  around  it.  Mature  life  is 
conformative  ;  it  adjusts  itself  with  a  will  and 
purpose  of  its  own  to    circumstances.     Old  age 


158  EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS. 

is  obdurate ;  it  persists  in  its  own  way  and 
after  its  own  judgment  and  inclination,  and  is 
slow  to  learn  what  is  new.  The  marvelous 
wisdom  of  nature  is  seen  in  these  appoint- 
ments, which  aim  at  securing  breadth  and 
symmetry,  agility  and  circumspectness,  firmness 
in  wise  compliance  with  urgent  conditions, 
and  tenacity  of  acquisition.  The  great  law  of 
habit  reveals  itself  conspicuously  in  these  ordi- 
nances of  nature. 

If  we  turn  to  the  medium  of  interaction 
between  the  two  prime  factors  in  education — the 
studies  pursued — we  find  a  full  measure  of  adap- 
tiveness  to  correspond  with  these  demands  of 
growth  and  pupilary  age.  Esthetic  and  moral 
training  we  have  regarded  more  as  incidental  to 
intellectual  culture  in  general  education  ;  but  in 
both  departments  mental  growth  proceeds  step 
by  step  in  manifoJd  successive  stages  of  instruc- 
tion adapted  to  age  and  capacity.  The  universe 
of  truth  and  knowledge,  which  is  the  means  of 
intellectual  training,  readily  submits  to  indefinite 
partition  and  reduction  down  to  the  most  ele- 
mentary and  the  most  minute.  Scientific  treatises 
and  educational  text-books  abound  in  all  grades 
from  the  most  rudimentary  to  the  highest  scien- 
tific or  philosophical  and  from  the  most  frag- 
mentary to  the  most  encyclopaedic.  The  same 
is  true  to  a  large  extent  of  manuals  in  aesthetic 
and  moral  training.  The  one  vast  whole  of 
knowledge  may  be  separated  into  smaller  wholes 


GROWTH  PERIODS.  I  59 

each  having  a  completeness  of  its  own,  to  an 
indefinite  degree. 

§  64.  In  these  views  we  discover  at  once  the 
practicabiHty  and  the  regulative  laws  of  a  cur- 
riailiim  of  instruction.  First,  it  must  be  care- 
fully adapted  to  the  ever  changing  capacity  of 
the  learner.  To  every  advance  in  proficiency 
there  should  be  elevation  and  reach  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  study.  The  number  of  studies,  also, 
must  lessen  with  progress  in  age  ;  the  volatility 
of  childhood  demanding  during  the  same  day 
manifold  exercises  each  of  but  a  few  minutes  of 
duration,  forbidding  all  prolonged  strain  of  exer- 
tion and  imposing  incessant  flutterings  of  effort 
in  every  direction  with  frequent  reliefs  of  abso- 
lute rest.  It  was  a  very  judicious  thing  to  pro- 
vide in  a  common  school  mattresses  for  the 
younger  scholars  to  be  used  as  the  need  of  rest 
should  indicate.  The  number  of  studies  may  be 
lessened  gradually  with  the  increase"  of  age  and 
proficiency. 

Secondly,  a  wise  curriculum  must  measure 
itself  off  into  definite  stages  of  study  and  instruc- 
tion. The  length  of  those  stages  must  be 
governed  by  the  stages  of  educational  life.  Each 
stage  will  of  course  cover  a  definite  whole  of 
knowledge,  circumscribed  and  defined  so  far  as 
may  be  so  as  to  be  distinctly  grasped  by  teacher 
[and  scholar.  The  teacher  should  know  definitely 
at  each  proposed  lesson  what  he  is  to  teach  and 
[both  he  and  the   pupil   should   know  at   the   end 


l6o  EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS. 

of  each  lesson  what  and  how  well  the  lesson  has 
been  taught  and  learned.  The  whole  portion  of 
study  to  be  compassed  in  the  week,  or  month, 
or  term,  or  course,  needs  to  be  recognized  in  like 
manner  ;  and  at  the  end  both  teacher  and  pupil 
should  know  definitely  what  has  been  learned 
and  how  well. 

Thirdly,  a  wise  curriculum  will  be  throughout 
progressive  in  its  character.  Each  stage  will 
prepare  for  what  follows  as  well  as  recognize 
what  has  gone  before  ;  every  step  be  an 
assured  step  forward.  Growth,  proficiency,  is  of 
the  very  essence  of  true  education:  ''first  the 
blade,  then  the  ear,  then  the  full  corn  in  the 
ear. 

Fourthly,  a  wise  curriculum  will  both  prescribe 
a  full  complement  of  study  for  each  stage  of  its 
course  and  also  co-ordinate  the  particular  studies 
which  it  comprises.  For  each  stage  of  profi- 
ciency, it  is  possible  to  frame  an  ideal  of  com- 
pleteness or  perfection  to  which  it  should  be  the 
aim  of  education  to  carry  its  pupil.  This  ideal 
will  embrace  not  only  degree  of  growth  but  also 
symmetry  of  development  in  all  the  activities 
under  training.  The  whole  being  is  to  be 
sympathetically  and  proportionably  developed. 
The  curriculum  should  respect  this  demand. 
Further  the  particular  studies  prescribed  at  any 
given  stage  should  be  selected  and  arranged  so 
as  to  be  tributary  to  the  general  proficiency  and 
also  helpful  and  not  a  hindrance  to  each  associ- 


GROWTH  PERIODS.  l6l 

ated  study.     The  principle  of  recreation  or  rest 
is  applicable  here. 

Three  special  rules  for  constructing  a  curric- 
ulum of  study  may  be  given  in  exemplification 
of  these  principles. 

1.  Conditional  studies  should  be  placed  before 
dependent  studies. 

2.  Elementary  studies  should  precede  the 
more  complicated. 

3.  A  suitable  diversity  of  studies  will  consti- 
tute the  complement  of  studies,  so  that  all  the 
activities  under  training  shall  be  engaged  by  its 
fitting  object  in  order  to  secure  both  the  largest 
amount  of  active  exertion  and  also  a  symmet- 
rical and  rounded  whole  of  attainment. 

II 


CHAPTER  III. 

EDUCATION    TERIODS. 

§  65.  There  are  certain  periods  determined 
to  education  from  its  various  relationships  to  the 
character  and  condition  of  its  pupils  and  to 
society.  These  periods  are  characterized  by 
certain  predominant  features  which  must  shape 
and  color  the  educational  work  to  be  done  and 
indicate  the  results  which  should  in  wisdom  be 
sought  in  them.  They  vary  in  character  and  do 
not  admit  of  very  exact  and  fixed  lines  of 
demarcation.  Four  of  such  periods  are  of  such 
familiar  recognition  and  exhibit  such  obvious 
and  important  characteristics  that  they  allow 
and  indeed  seem  to  require  distinct  considera- 
tion. 

The  first  of  these  periods  may  be  designated 
the  KINDERGARTEN  period.  It  is  the  period  of 
childhood  ending  at  the  age  of  about  four  years. 
It  is  the  age,  as  we  have  noticed  of  dependence 
and  of  volatility  :  its  home  is  the  nursery.  The 
educational  work  for  this  period  will  characteris- 
tically be  that  of  full  and  equal  development  of 
all  the  diverse  activities,  with  the  repression  or 
extirpation  of  all  buddings  of  evil.     The   future 

162 


ED  UCA  TION  1  'EKIODS.  I  d^ 

of  character  will  be  lartjely  shaped  by  the  train- 
ing of  this  period,  more  largely  perhaps  than  by 
any  hereditary  shapings.  Art  may  often  super- 
sede nature  while  working  under  nature's  laws. 
Everywhere  in  the  promiscuous  relationships  of 
modern  civilization  race  propensities  are  over- 
borne and  character  although  more  or  less 
tinged  with  the  hue  of  descent,  takes  on  a  new 
shape  and  color  from  the  new  associations. 
Genius,  as  so  reputed,  is  often  more  the  resultant 
of  nursery  care  than  of  ancestral  relations.  The 
volatility  and  pliability  of  this  tender  age  indi- 
cating that  the  leading  care  of  training  be- 
stowed upon  it  should  be  to  secure  the  largest 
and  most  symmetrical  development  as  its  com- 
manding object  and  aim,  make  this  educational 
period  characteristically  one  of  play ;  its  very 
work  will  be  play.  All  lessons,  all  exercises 
should  be  made  to  the  pupil  to  assume  the 
character  of  sport,  amusement,  entertainment, 
only  as  the  period  approaches  its  termina- 
tion, anticipating  as  it  were  somewhat  of  the 
tasking  characteristics  of  the  period  that  is  to 
follow. 

.  g  66.  The  second  educational  period  may  ex- 
tend eight  or  nine  years  from  the  end  of  the  first 
to  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen.  It  may  be 
designated  as  the  PRIMARY  period  of  education. 
It  corresponds  with  the  prevailing  compulsory 
period  under  the  civil  laws;  Here  comes  proper 
tasking,   definite   assignment   of  study  and   prac- 


164  EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS. 

tice.  Recreation  will  take  the  form  rather  of 
change  of  exercise  than  proper  rest ;  and  play, 
diversion,  will  be  for  the  most  part  or  entirely 
excluded  from  the  school-room.  Now  the  foun- 
dations begin  to  be  laid  for  the  future.  A  half 
or  more  of  the  period  will  be  predominantly 
spent  in  rudimentary  studies.  Spelling,  reading, 
writing,  the  ground  rules  of  arithmetic,  absorb 
the  thought  and  consume  the  time  except  as, 
mainly  for  recreation  and  incidentally,  exercises 
are  introduced  for  developing  the  senses  of  sight 
and  of  sound,  and  also  agility  and  dexterity  in 
use  of  hands  and  feet,  as  in  drawing,  rhythmical 
movements,  and  the  like.  The  suppleness  and 
pliancy  of  boyhood  may  also  here  be  availed  of 
in  giving  control  of  fingers  and  feet,  and,  more- 
over, of  the  vocal  organs  for  future  training 
in  elocution  and  in  music.  It  may  be  wise  here 
also  to  introduce  to  the  articulations  of  such  for- 
eign languages  as  may  need  to  be  acquired  in 
after  years.  It  is  also  desirable  for  the  future 
acquisition  of  the  so-called  dead  languages  early 
to  introduce  into  the  mind  of  the  learner  the 
truth  that,  although  now  dead,  these  languages 
were  once  the  common  speech  of  living  peoples. 
Much  of  the  like  anticipatory  work  may  be 
judiciously  introduced,  although  but  incidentally, 
at  this  period.  The  later  portions  of  the  period 
will  of  course  be  devoted  in  part  to  such  studies 
as  those  of  descriptive  geography  and  map  draw- 
ing and  of  elementary  history.     Holiday,  leisure, 


ED UCA  TION  PERIODS.  1 65 

and  recreation  hours  may  invite  into  the  fields 
for  the  cursory  study  of  scenery,  of  the  rocks,  of 
plants  aiid  flowers.  Reading  in  private  and  of 
course  for  entertainment,  should  be  supervised 
and  turned  towards  such  as  is  refining,  elevating, 
instructing  as  well  as  diverting.  This  period 
will  moreover  take  on  a  preparatory  character 
looking  forward  to  the  period  that  may  follow. 
The  great  mass,  however,  of  the  people,  it  is  . 
much  to  be  regretted,  are  unable  from  the  con- 
straints of  poverty,  for  education  necessarily 
costs,  to  pass  beyond  the  bounds  of  this  primary 
and  popular  period;  many,  alas !  can  only  hold 
out  through  the  first  half  of  it.  This  popular 
education  should  therefore  be  shaped  to  this  end 
— to  give  the  largest  and  best  results  attainable, 
shoving  out  and  subordinating  to  this  end  proper 
preparatory  work.  Much  will  be  gained  if  in 
this  period  there  can  be  awakened  a  desire  and 
purpose  for  the  great  work  of  self-teaching  in  the 
hours  of  release  from  necessary  labor.  The  dis- 
tinguished self-made  men  of  the  civilized  world 
have  taken  their  start  from  the  primary  school- 
room. But  no  primary  education  can  be  said  to 
have  fulfilled  its  design  unless  it  can  send  forth 
its  pupils  with  a  ready  ability  to  spell  well  in 
the  vernacular  ;  to  read  intelligently  and- intelli- 
gibly and  of  course  with  self-gratification  ;  to 
write  legibly  and  neatly  ;  to  reckon  also  so  far 
as  the  intelligent  keeping  of  accounts,  enabling 
and   disposing  them  to  a   faithful    record    of    all 


1 66  EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS. 

moneys  received  and  expended  as  to  their 
amount  and  also  as  to  the  source  whence  received 
and  the  object  to  which  appropriated.  Regular 
balancings  of  money  accounts  are  vitally  asso- 
ciated with  balancings  of  gains  and  losses  in 
knowledge  and  in  morals.      §  56. 

§  6'].  The  third  of  the  great  education  periods 
— the  period  of  secondary  education  extending, 
say,  to  the  age  of  twenty-two — may  be  designated 
as  the  LIBERAL.  It  is  the  period  of  the  High 
school  and  the  Classical  schools  or  academies, 
which  cover  the  first  half  of  the  period,  and  the 
Collegiate  and  so-called  Scientific  which  extends 
over  the  second  half.  The  training  in  the  first 
part  is  largely  preparatory  for  the  latter  part — 
the  High  School  and  the  Classical  Academy  look 
largely  to  the  College  or  the  Scientific  School. 
To  a  considerable  extent  the  courses  of  training 
whether  thus  preparatory  or  for  general  culture 
will  be  identical.  But  the  fitting  for  positions 
and  occupations  in  the  higher  grades  of  civilized 
life,  in  which  refinement  and  general  intelli- 
gence are  dominant,  should  be  a  prevalent  fea- 
ture ;  and  this  end  must  shape  the  curriculum 
throughout.  The  boy  rules  in  the  High  School 
and  Academy.  He  requires  steady  oversight 
and  government,  protection  from  harmful  influ- 
ences, encouragement  in  all  that  is  worthy  and 
good,  while  yet  still  buoyant  and  hopeful  and 
given  to  hilarity  and  good  cheer.  Games  of  all 
kinds  are  meet  for  his  healthy  development  physi- 


ED UCA  TION  PERIODS,  I  G'J 

cally,  intellectually,  morally.  He  puts  on  the 
manners,  the  deportment,  the  hopes  and  aspira- 
tions of  a  man  as  he  passes  into  the  college  ;  and 
manly  diversions  now  take  the  place  of  the 
puerile.  Playful  mischief  may  be  condoned  in 
the  school  boy  ;  it  is  intolerable  in  the  collegian. 
The  seriousness  and  grandeur  of  human  life 
loom  up  now  before  the  eye  of  the  latter,  dimly 
yet  impressively  and  instructively.  Here  as  in 
the  High  School,  studies  branch  as  preparatory 
for  the  higher  classical  or  liberal  pursuits  and  for 
more  special  purposes.  The  curriculum  can  be 
wisely  and  economically  made  to  minister  to 
the  highest  profit  of  both  classes.  The  mingling 
of  men  of  various  pursuits  and  conditions  is  a 
grand  object  in  education  as  fitting  for  the  hap- 
piest social  state.  The  preparatory  studies,  look- 
ing to  professional  or  higher  literary  life,  should 
be  preparatory,  not  finishing  in  their  proper  ten- 
dency and  effect.  The  future  is  best  prepared 
for  by  the  best  use  of  the  means  and  opportuni- 
ties of  the  present.  To  forecaste  in  the  ignorance 
and  inexperience  of  pupilary  years,  as  to  the 
particular  shaping  and  character  of  this  future,  is 
pretty  certain  to  insure  an  imperfect  ideal,  ever 
cramping  and  lowering. 

§  68.  The  fourth  of  the  great  educational  pe- 
riods, introducing  into  the  higher  or  professional 
life,  may  be  designated  the  AVOCATION  period. 
Its  characteristic  is  that  its  one  great  function  is 
to   prepare  directly  for  this  higher  professional 


1 68  EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS. 

life.  It  is  a  purely  avocational  period  if  it  border 
directly  on  a  full  completed  term  of  liberal  train- 
ing. The  curriculum  may  be  modified  either  by 
the  omission  of  such  anticipatory  studies  or  prac- 
tice as  have  been  admitted  into  the  proper 
secondary  or  liberal  school  system,  or  by  the 
introduction  of  such  training  as  has  been 
omitted  in  the  earlier  periods.  Its  general  char- 
acter still  remains:  its  aim  is  purely  avoca- 
tional, fitting  for  the  permanent  pursuits  of 
life. 

The  diversity  of  these  avocational  systems  is 
as  great  as  the  diversity  of  callings  in  human  life 
requiring  special  training  or  instruction.  For  the 
man  of  leisure,  the  idler  or  man  of  no  work,  and 
the  man  of  pleasure  too,  education  makes  no  pro- 
vision, leaving  him  to  "  paddle  his  own  canoe/' 
or  sluggishly  float  down  the  stream  of  life.  For 
the  day  laborer,  the  man  of  all  work,  the  fag  and 
drudge,  it  only  does  so  much  as  to  make  him  a 
man  to  be  valued  and  respected,  a  worthy  citi- 
zen, and  possibly  capable  by  self-training  of 
rising  to  high  positions  of  honor  and  service. 
The  man  of  skill  steps  in  after  this  gradation  in 
training,  and  now  begin  proper  systems  of  edu- 
cation. The  first  to  be  named  is  the  mechanical 
school.  Hitherto  little  of  formal  provision  has 
been  effected  or  devised  for  this  large  field  of 
training.  The  need  has  been  felt  and  imperfectly 
shown  in  the  incidental  or  optional  features  of 
the  more  general   curriculum  ;    somewhat   too  in 


ED  UCA  TION  PERIODS.  1 69 

the  now  well-nigh  obsolete  systems  of  appren- 
ticeship [learner-ship].  Recent  experience  has 
shown  that  incipient  training  in  these  depart- 
ments of  industry  can  be  successfully  introduced 
into  the  common  schools  without  serious  incon- 
venience or  disadvantage.  The  felt  wants  of 
society  press  for  a  steady  improvement  and 
enlargement  of  these  educational  provisions, 
which  may  perhaps  lead  to  independent  schools 
of  training. 

Next  to  the  handicraftsman  comes  the  man  of 
business,  the  merchant  in  all  the  numberless 
diversities  of  his  service  from  the  huckster  up  to 
the  great  jobber  in  merchandise,  the  go-between 
in  all  grades  between  producer  and  consumer,  the 
man  of  money  and  of  commerce  generally.  The 
Trades-Schools,  the  Business  Colleges,  are  the 
sporadic  representatives  of  educational  work  in 
this  department  of  human  industry. 

A  higher  grade  of  avocation  systems  of  training 
is  found  in  the  Professional  Schools  properly  so 
called — the  schools  of  the  three  so-called  learned 
professions — the  Clerical  or  Theological,  the 
Legal,  and  the  Medical.  Here  are  demanded 
and  here  accordingly  are  provided  the  educators 
of  the  highest  and  broadest  intellectual  attain- 
ments as  well  as  of  the  best  professional 
skill.  They  are  for  the  most  part  purely 
professional,  admitting  no  merely  preparatory 
training.  When  such  preparatory  studies  ap- 
pear, they  appear  as  incidental  and    exceptional, 


170  EDUCATIONAL  RESULTS. 

and  are  designed  to  meet  special  conditions  in 
society. 

Emphatically  special  and  peculiar  are  the  great 
national  military  and  naval  schools.  The  needs 
of  the  nation  require  a  long,  specially  arranged 
system  of  training,  characterized  all  along  by  this 
one  pervading  peculiarity  of  fitting  for  a  national 
use  and  service.  They  take  up  into  their  own 
hands  large  parts  of  the  general  systems  of  edu- 
cation.    They  are  professional  throughout. 

There  remain  a  large,  indefinite  diversity  of 
avocations  for  which  education  has  hitherto  made 
scanty  provision,  but  which  are  ever  more  ur- 
gently pressing  their  claims  for  special  outfits 
and  special  instructors.  They  are  crowding  them- 
selves more  and  more  into  the  liberal  institutions 
snatching  at  every  opportunity  or  opening  in  the 
curriculum  and  especially  in  the  optional  depart- 
ment. They  embrace  the  callings  of  Journalist 
and  Teacher  and  Author;  of  Artist  and  Scientist, 
or  Philosopher;  of  Statesman  and  Diplomat. 
The  advance  of  civilized  society  multiplies  the 
demand  for  trained  services  in  all  these  diverse 
ways.  More  servants  of  the  public  are  required 
and  at  the  same  time  higher  and  more  special 
preparation.  The  great  law  of  supply  and  de- 
mand will  doubtless  in  time  introduce  special 
avocational  schools  or  systems  of  training  for 
each  of  these  departments  of  service.  Already 
we  have,  in  separate  institutions  or  as  integral 
parts  of  University  organization.  Normal  Schools 


ED  UCA  TTON  PE/C/ODS.  I J I 

for  the  Teacher,  Art  Schools  for  the  Musician 
and  the  Painter,  Schools  of  Philosophy  for  the 
Cosmopolite  in  Icarnini^-  and  science  :  and  the  end 
is  not  )'et.  The  age  is  one  of  progress ;  nowhere 
is  this  characteristic  more  declared  and  promi- 
nent than  in  the  Science  and  Art  of  Educa- 
tion. 


INDEX. 


j^sthciic  education,  lOo;  in  the 
personal  appearance  and  car- 
riage, 109;  the  senses,  110; 
in  recollection,  no;  in  the 
imagination,  in. 

Aim,  in  education,  86. 

Aphorisms  for  elementary  stud- 
ies, 129. 

Appliances,  educational,  49. 

Arithmetic,  aphorisms  for  teach- 
ing, 136. 

Assimilation,  in  nurture,  104. 

Attributes,  training  in  discrimi- 
nating, 122;  intrinsic  or  ex- 
trinsic, 123;  categories,  124. 

Authority  in  teaching,  27,  150. 

Beautiful,  the,  sole  object  of 
the  function  of  form,  100 ;  its 
three  constituents,  103,  109. 

Categories  of  thought,  124. 
Character,  the  ideal  in   training, 

9;  involved  in  education  with 

condition,  38. 
Class  association,  53. 
Concept,  its  nature,  116. 
Curriculum,  requisites  in,  159. 

Deduction,  3,  118. 
Determination,   amplification  of 
attribute  concept,  117. 

Earttestness  in  teacher,  25,  86. 

Education,  defined,  3  ;  respects 
a  growth,  4;  involves  the  in- 
teraction of  three  factors,  5 ; 


an  ordinance  of  nature,  14 ; 
its  work  twofold,  65. 

Education  periods,  (i)  kinder- 
garten, 162;  (2)  primary,  163; 
(3)  liberal,  166;  (4)  avoca- 
tional,  167. 

Educational  aphorisms  for  ele- 
mentary studies,  129. 

Educational  Institutions,  56  ; 
private,  57  ;  state,  58. 

Educational  results,  155. 

Effective  7oork  in  education,  its 
conditions, 80;  (i)sympathetic, 
80;  (2)  earnest,  86;  (3)  aim- 
ing, 86;  (4)  developing,  87; 
(5)  provident,  89;  (6)  precau- 
tionary, 90;  (7)  with  recrea- 
tion, 90. 

Endoiument  and  environment, 2,^. 

Exercise,  in  training,  74. 

Form,  the  function  of,  embrac- 
ing the  sensibility  and  the 
imagination,  100,  103. 

Generalization^  2,  117,  126. 
Good,   the,   object   of    the   will, 

ICG. 

Grammar,  aphorisms  for  teach- 
ing, 139- 

Growth,  as  object  in  educating 
work,  88  ;  periods  in  educa- 
tion, 156;  as  determining 
work  to  be  previsional  and 
assuring  at  every  step,  156. 


Habit,  law  of,  99. 


173 


174 


lArDEX. 


Ima,i^!iiation,  as  active  side  of 
the  function  of  form,  71,  100; 
three  stages  in  training  indi- 
cated, 75;  its  object,  the 
beautiful  or  perfect  in  form, 
100;  its  stages  of  manifesta- 
tion, 107. 

Induction,  2,  118. 

/«/<?//c(-/«a/ education,  112. 

Intelligence,  its  one  object  the 
true,  100;  its  two  stages,  per- 
ceptive and  reflective,  113. 

[iidgment,  the,  as  matured  form 
of  knowledge,  114;  its  three 
comprehensive  movements, 
117,  119. 

Lecture  TcacliinQ,  as  compared 
with  oral  instruction,  81. 

Logical,  methods  threefold,  2 ; 
science,  its  importance  to  the 
teacher,  127. 

Means  a7id  appliances  in  educa- 
tion, 47. 

Memory,  ^.s  retentive,  69,  105; 
rules  in  training,  106;  as  re- 
productive, 107. 

Mental  education,  100. 

Mind,  its  threefold  functional 
activity,  100. 

Moral  activity,  it?- objects,  148. 

Moral  Education,  145;  stages 
threefold,  ( i )  exemplification 
of  duty;  (2)  formal  precept; 
(3)  enforcement  of  duty,  149. 

Morality,  its  fundamental  prin- 
ciple, 148. 

Nature-  Teaching,  1 1 . 
Number  of  studies,  52. 
N'urture,  as  one   part  of  educa- 
tional work,  65. 

Oral  Teaching,  in  comparison 
with  the  lecture,  82. 

Parental  Teaching,  14 ;  em- 
braces nurture  and  discipline, 
17  ;    should    begin    early,   17  ; 


be  natural,  18;  kindly,  19; 
continuous  and  congruous,  19; 
authoritative,  21  ;  direct,  21  ; 
indirect,  23. 

Perception,  its  nature,  1 14. 

Physical  Education,  94  ;  in  min- 
istry to  whole  body,  and  in 
subordination  to  the  mental 
life,  95 ;  under  law  of  habit, 
96;  under  natural  laws,  97  ; 
the  digestive,  respiratory,  and 
circulatory  functions,  98. 

Place  and  Tivie,  in  education,  50. 

Pro7'isional  work  in  education, 
89. 

Punishivicnts,  54. 

Pupil,  the,  as  educational  factor, 
31,  46;  generic  capabilities, 
32 ;  in  their  intrinsic  nature, 
32  ;  in  their  relationships,  38  ; 
specially  modified  capabilities, 
40 ;  in  respect  to  age,  40  ; 
sex,  42  ;  personal  idiosyncra- 
sies, 44;  extrinsic  capabili- 
ties, 45. 

Reading,  aphorisms  for  teach- 
ing, "132. 

Pecollection,  in  memory,  107. 

Recreation,  its  necessity,  90; 
should  be  in  adaptation,  91  ; 
educatory,  92  ;  contrastive, 
92  ;  attractive,  92  ;  from  work 
to  play,  93. 

Retenti-'cness  in  mental  training, 
69,   105. 

Review,  profitableness  of,  79. 

Rewards  and  Punishments,  54. 

Rhetoric,  complementary  of 
grammar,  143. 

Science  of  education,  defined, 
I  ;  its  three  requisites,  i ;  its 
twofold  methods  of  apprehen- 
sion, 2  ;  method  of  the  sci- 
ence of  education,  3. 

Self-  Teaching,  7  ;  the  ideal  in 
training,  9;  self-reliance,  10. 

Sensibility,  the,  passive  side  of 
the  function  of  form,  100;  its 
characteristics,  103. 


INDEX. 


1-75 


Sex,  in  education,  42. 
Skill  in  tcac/iiiti^,  27. 
Spelling,   aphorisms    for    teach- 
ing, 130. 
State    Institutions    of    learning, 

58. 
Studies,  number  of,  52. 
Sympathy   in     teacher,    25;      as 

condition  of  effective  work,  80. 

Teaching  Factor,  the,  7-30;  self- 
teaching,  7;  nature-teaching, 
II;  parental  teaching,  14; 
technical  teaching,  25;  its 
personal  characteristics,  sym- 
pathetic and  communicative, 
25;  earnest,  25;  technical 
skill,  27 ;  authoritative,  27  ; 
congruousness,  29. 


Text-books  in  teaching,  85. 

7>J/«-^7;/i,'-,  its  nature,  114;  attri- 
bution, 115. 

Time  and  I'lace,  in  education, 
SO. 

Training  as  one  part  of  educa- 
tional work,  68 ;  proceeds 
from  the  elements,  not  from 
complex  wholes,  77. 

True,  the  object  of  the  intelli- 
gence, 100. 

IVill,  the,  as  a  function  of  mind, 
100;  its  object,  the  good,  100; 
education  of,  145 ;  its  essen- 
tial characteristic,  146. 

Writing,   aphorisms  for    teach- 


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